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Russo-Japanese War: A History
from Beginning to End
By Hourly History.
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This isn't a topic taught in general knowledge as such in schools in India, so one might not hear of it unless one either goes to specialise in history, or come across it while reading about freedom fighters and background thereof, which somewhere might mention how the Japanese victory energised India.
For a racist outlook was widely prevalent then, holding European races superior above all in every way, due to colonial subjugation and a need of justification thereof, which was imposed not only then by evrry institution including church, but even as recentlyas a decade or so ago at institutionssuch as Alliance Francaiaise, by teachers who werent French or European - or had an obvious ancestry therefrom.
Specifically, inane stupidity pronounced were to the tune of "you can't imagine it, but the French people, they have pink cheeks"!
But pink cheeks and fair skin isn't uncommon in India, even in Tamilnadu! Just less so than in dark Nordic latitudes of sun-deprived Europe.
Did Hiroshima and Nagasaki have something to do with a racist avenging of not only Pearl Harbor but this supposedly first defeat of 'white' race by an Asian nation?
For surely, this wasn't an absolute first? Or did West think that the Mongolian conquerors who'd swarmed not only through Russia into Europe but gone right up your France, were somehow bestowed with supernatural powers?
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"When comparing military forces, it’s tempting to focus on numbers—numbers of troops, guns, or ships. But less easily quantified factors impact an army or navy’s performance just as much as quantity. Morale, training, how intelligence is gathered and used, and the ability and experience of commanders all have a profound impact on how any military unit performs on the battlefield.
"Nowhere did this become more apparent than during the short war between the Russian and Japanese Empires in 1904 and 1905. The Russian Empire had the largest standing army in the world and the third largest navy. Russian military forces had almost two hundred years of experience in combat, and Russia was able to send almost two million troops to protect its acquisitions in Korea and Manchuria (northeastern China). The army and navy of the Japanese Empire were smaller and had a much shorter history of combat in the modern age. Japan was able to send only around 400,000 men to Korea and Manchuria—a sizeable army, but much smaller than that of their Russian adversaries.
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"In addition, until the 1860s, Japan was largely isolated from the rest of the world and remained a feudal, largely agrarian society. Only after the Meiji Restoration did Japan begin to industrialize and build well-equipped, modern armed forces.
"When these two empires came into conflict over territory in Asia, few people doubted that Russia would quickly triumph. Underlying this assumption was the inherent racism of the period; at the beginning of the twentieth century, most people assumed that Europeans were somehow innately superior to Asians. This led to a belief the European soldiers were also superior to their Asian counterparts and would therefore quickly win any war between east and west.
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"The first major war of the twentieth century undermined all these assumptions. The rise of the Japanese Empire showed that Asians were just as capable as Europeans and that intelligent, motivated Asian soldiers and leaders could win against a larger European enemy. This war demonstrated that the Russian Empire was not as powerful as it seemed and led the Japanese Empire toward the zenith of its power.
"The Russo-Japanese War also introduced new weapons and new tactics that caused casualties on a much larger scale than anything seen before, something that would find its final and most devastating expression just ten years later in World War I."
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"“The absorption of Manchuria by Russia would render it impossible to maintain the integrity of China, and would, in addition, compel the abandonment of all hope for peace in the Extreme East.”
"—Emperor Meiji"
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"As the nineteenth century drew to a close, the Russian Empire was one of the most powerful nations on the planet. Geographically, this was also one of the largest nations, covering almost one-sixth of the earth’s landmass. The building of railroads had linked many parts of the empire than had previously been inaccessible, but even by train, it took more than ten days to travel from the Black Sea in the west to Vladivostok in the east.
"In military terms, Russia had one of the largest standing armies in the world. However, the Russian defeat in the Crimean War in 1856 had exposed serious deficiencies in military units. Soldiers received little training beyond what was needed to look smart on the parade ground, and equipment and supplies were poor as both soldiers and men regularly sold off food and weapons.
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"During the reign of Tsar Alexander II from 1855 to 1881, significant reforms were introduced. These included compulsory military service (lasting for six years) for all Russian men aged 20, which led to the creation of better-trained units and to the establishment of a large military reserve of trained men who could be called up in a time of war. By the end of the nineteenth century, and if reserves and militias were included, the Imperial Russian Army could call on up to three million men. In comparison, the army of the British Empire at the same time numbered less than 400,000 men with no pool of trained reservists to call upon in times of war. When an international military force was assembled to protect European residents in China during the Boxer Rebellion from 1899 to 1901, Russia was able to provide 100,000 troops while Britain contributed only 12,000.
"The Russian Navy was also a powerful force at this time. An expanded building program instituted by Tsar Nichols II saw the Russian Navy become the third largest in the world, behind only Britain and France. The main element of this navy was the Baltic Fleet, based in the port of Kronstadt, west of the city of St. Petersburg. The Imperial Russian Navy also had a Pacific Fleet based in the port of Vladivostok and a Black Sea Fleet based in Odessa in the Crimea.
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"Because the port of Vladivostok was covered in ice for part of the year, the Russian Empire used the threat of military action in 1897 to force the tottering regime in China to grant Russia a 25-year lease on the Liaodong Peninsula in Manchuria. This Included Port Arthur, a large port originally created by the British and more recently occupied by the Japanese after the First Sino-Japanese war (1894-1895). The port was an important acquisition for Russia, as it was ice-free at all times and provided Russia, for the first time, with year-round access to the Pacific Ocean.
"Russia immediately began to send warships to Port Arthur; by 1904, the First Pacific Squadron comprised seven battleships and seven cruisers, as well as many smaller warships. The smaller Siberian Military Flotilla remained stationed in Vladivostok. The construction of a railway from Port Arthur up the Liaodong Peninsula also began as soon as Russia took control of the port. By 1903, this railroad line connected with the Russian-controlled Chinese Eastern Railway, which in turn connected to the main Russian rail system. From 1901, it became possible to travel from St. Petersburg to Port Arthur by train on what became known as the Trans-Siberian Railway. This allowed the rapid transit of troops, supplies, and weapons to the port, which Russia quickly began to fortify.
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"Port Arthur became an essential element in Russian foreign policy, which was increasingly looking to Asia for the possibility of expansion. Russia had no desire to become involved in a war with any European power. Britain, France, and the German Empire had strong armies and powerful navies, and any war there involved the risk of catastrophic defeat. The possibility for expansion in Asia seemed to offer better opportunities.
"Korea, in particular, looked to provide access to new markets and new sources of raw materials without the risk of a war against any European nation. The Korean Empire was created in 1897 after the defeat of China in the First Sino-Japanese War brought the nation independence for the first time. The Korean Empire was nominally neutral, though in truth it had formed close diplomatic relations with Russia. Many people believed that Russia intended to turn Korea into a protectorate of the Russian Empire.
"Meanwhile, another power in the region also had designs on Korea and viewed the prospect of continuing Russian expansion with grave concern."
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"“It goes without saying that when survival is threatened, struggles erupt between peoples, and unfortunate wars between nations result.”
"—Hideki Tojo"
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"Up until 1868, Japan pursued a policy that was isolationist and intended to preserve traditional values. The Tokugawa shogunate (which had ruled Japan since 1603) preserved feudal values and, as far as possible, excluded Japan from foreigners. After a civil war, this system of rule was overthrown, and an emperor installed was as the ruler of Japan. Emperor Meiji would lead Japan for the next forty years through a period of social upheaval and rapid industrialization.
"The new rulers of Japan sought contact with the west. Although they still retained traditional Japanese social and cultural values, they understood that to become a powerful modern nation, they needed to adopt western technologies and approaches. This applied particularly to military technology. As an island, naval power was extremely important to Japan.
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"Under the policy of sakoku (seclusion) imposed by the Tokugawa shogunate, the building of ocean-going ships was absolutely forbidden. Almost as soon as Emperor Meiji was established on the throne, it was recognized that Japan would need a strong navy. In 1870, it was decided that Britain, at that time the nation with the most powerful navy in the world, would serve as the model for the new Japanese Navy. British officers taught at the new Japanese naval academy, and warships ordered for the Japanese Navy were constructed in British shipyards.
"In the 1880s, an arms race began with Japan attempting to build a navy powerful enough to challenge its main rival in the region, China. The Japanese Navy was by now equipped with their modern warships constructed in Britain, while China ordered a number of equivalent ships from Imperial Germany. The main focus of enmity between Japan and China was the Korean peninsula.
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"Japan viewed Korea as a significant source of natural resources that were scarce on the Japanese home islands. China regarded Korea as a tributary state, and an increasing Japanese presence in the region caused mounting concern. In 1882 and 1884, several diplomatic incidents in Korea came close to causing war. As a result, a treaty was signed in 1885 under which China and Japan agreed that neither nation would send troops to the area without first consulting the other."
In short, Korea in Asia was Poland of Europe.
"In 1894, Korea’s rulers requested China to send troops to the area to help crush a local rebellion. In response, Japan also rushed troops and naval forces to Korea. After the rebellion was successfully overcome, neither nation would agree to withdraw its troops. Inevitably, fighting soon broke out, and the ensuing First Sino-Japanese War was a disaster for China. During a naval battle off the mouth of the Yalu River in September 1894, two-thirds of the Chinese fleet was sunk. On land too, the modernized Japanese Army proved to be superior to their Chinese counterparts. The war ended in April 1895 with a treaty that gave Japan notable concessions. China agreed that the island of Formosa, the Pescadores Islands, and the Liaotung Peninsula would all be ceded to Japan.
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"Russia, France, and Germany were concerned that these acquisitions would give Japan too much power in the region. They intervened, changing the terms of the treaty and forcing Japan to return the strategically important Liaotung Peninsula to Chinese control. That was a serious blow to Japanese national prestige, and the situation was made even more difficult when, two years later, Russia forced China to agree to lease the Liaotung Peninsula and Port Arthur. During the Boxer Rebellion from 1899 to 1901, large numbers of Russian troops were sent to China, and many remained as a virtual occupation force in Manchuria. Korea, recognizing that it could no longer rely on Chinese support, began to look to Russia as a potential ally."
That brings Korea in a position somewhat comparable with Afghanistan, or Greece in the same time span.
"Japan viewed Russian expansion into Manchuria and the growing Russian presence in Korea with extreme suspicion. The Russian occupation of Port Arthur was particularly galling to many Japanese people, who viewed this strategically important harbor as rightfully belonging to Japan following their victory in the First Sino-Japanese War. However, Japan was not in a position to take on the combined military might of Russia backed by France and Germany and was forced to accept the growing Russian presence in Asia.
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"In 1902, Japan signed a very significant treaty with Britain. The Anglo-Japanese Alliance pledged both countries to intervene if the other was attacked by two or more other nations but allowed both to remain neutral if the other was attacked by only one country. From the Japanese perspective, this was a vital treaty. By 1902, many Japanese were coming to see Russia as the single most significant impediment to Japanese expansion in Korea. Some even began to regard war with Russia as inevitable. Japanese military leaders believed that Japan might be able to defeat Russia alone but that it could not hope to win against Russia if it was supported by other powerful European nations.
"The Anglo-Japanese Alliance seemed to make it possible for Japan to fight Russia alone. If other European nations did decide to intervene, they would also face Britain with its powerful navy. Thus, from the time that this alliance was signed, the Japanese secretly began planning for war with Russia."
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"“To avert a revolution, we need a small victorious war.”
"—Vyacheslav Plehve, Russian Minister of the Interior"
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"In 1894, Tsar Alexander III died and was succeeded by his son, Nicholas II. Nicholas did not feel that he was ready to take on the rule of Russia, telling one official on hearing news of his father’s death, “I know nothing of the business of ruling.”
"As tsar, Nicholas inherited the rule of a country that was riven by internal strife and dissent. In the 1880s and 1890s, Russia went through a period of rapid industrialization. This led to greatly increased urban populations in the main cities, but low wages, dreadful housing, and dangerous working conditions led to calls for change and improvement. Liberal politicians called for the introduction of some form of parliamentary democracy to modify the absolute power of the tsar. Others called for radical, even revolutionary change. Many who believed in the latter formed secret societies dedicated to overthrowing the rule of the tsar; one such group, the People’s Will, had succeeded in assassinating Tsar Alexander II in St. Petersburg in 1881. Other assassinations of local and national political leaders followed, and strikes and demonstrations became commonplace.
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"Tsar Nicholas II refused to contemplate any change that would reduce his power; he really did seem to believe that his rule had been ordained by God. Soon after becoming tsar, he was approached by a group of liberal politicians who urged him to consider establishing some form of democratic government. He dismissed these notions as “senseless dreams” and refused to consider any change at all. Strikes, protests, and assassinations thus continued.
"In 1902, the minister of the interior, Dmitry Sipyagin, was assassinated by a member of a secret socialist revolutionary group. The tsar responded to this unrest by increasing oppression and state control of the press. Members of the Okhrana (Guard), a secret police force controlled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, were given increased powers and instructed to focus on revolutionary groups. Hundreds of people were arrested and imprisoned, but demands for fundamental change within Russia continued to grow.
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"Still, Nicholas refused to consider any change that he saw as undermining the power and authority of the tsar. He seemed to believe that Russian expansion into Asia would give access to new resources and new markets that would improve conditions for the people of Russia and, in turn, undermine the revolutionary movement. He also seems to have viewed most Asian people with contempt, reserving a particular dislike for the Japanese.
"Before taking the throne, Nicholas had undertaken a state visit to Japan in 1881. One of the Japanese police officers detailed to guard him had been a Japanese nationalist, and he had attempted to assassinate Nicholas with a sword. The attack failed to kill the future tsar, but it left him with a visible scar on his head, a tendency to crippling headaches, and a loathing of Japanese people. Even in official documents, Nicholas was known to refer to the Japanese as “makaki” (meaning monkeys)."
Wasn't he accompanied on this trip by one of his English - royal - cousins?
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"He certainly wasn’t alone in this inherent racism. Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany was one of the first people to coin the phrase “yellow peril” to describe the rise of Chinese and Japanese power in the region. Nicholas, Wilhelm, and others also seemed to believe implicitly in the inherent inferiority of the Asian races. People such as the Japanese might have adopted western ways, and they might even have modern armies and navies, but few doubted that if it came to war between east and west, the supposed inherent superiority of the white man would quickly prevail.
"The fact that Russian expansion in Asia, and particularly the Russian occupation of Port Arthur and growing Russian influence in Korea, stirred up conflict with Japan caused the tsar few worries. After all, if it came to war, surely it wouldn’t take long for the mighty Russian Army and Navy to crush the presumptuous Japanese? There was also a feeling amongst some members of the Russian ruling class that a war might not be a bad thing. War would unite Russia in a wave of nationalist sentiment. Obviously, the war would have to be victorious, and it would be better if it was short. That effectively ruled out any war with a major European nation, but perhaps a short, successful war against, for example, Japan might not be a bad thing for Russia, these nobles surmised.
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"Russia continued to build defenses in Port Arthur and to pour troops into Manchuria. In Japan, there were large demonstrations, both directly against Russia and against the Japanese government, for failing to curb Russian expansion into Asia. A series of diplomatic negotiations between Japan and Russia in 1903 and early 1904 made little progress. Russia was not willing to contemplate any change in its situation in Manchuria or the Liaotung Peninsula or to reduce its growing presence in Korea. Many Japanese diplomats felt that Russia was not serious about seeking a diplomatic solution to the problem. They were probably right; many of the Russian diplomats probably welcomed the prospect of a war they believed they could quickly win.
"By early 1904, many Japanese military and political leaders had become convinced that war with Russia was inevitable. They believed that the Anglo-Japanese Alliance should prevent the intervention of any other European power, but the fact remained that Japanese naval and army units were outnumbered by their Russian counterparts. If it was to win, Japan had to begin the war with a surprise attack on the main Russian fleet in Port Arthur. In an eerie foreshadowing of the attack on the U.S. fleet in Pearl Harbor less than forty years later, it was decided that the Japanese fleet would attack Russia in a pre-emptive strike without any declaration of war."
That's silly. It wasn't, isn't, "eerie foreshadowing" at all, on the contrary - it's merely repetition of a strategy that was tested and successful.
"During the night of February 8, 1904, a Japanese battle fleet under the command of Admiral Togo Heihachiro attacked the Russian First Pacific Squadron in Port Arthur. Two Russian battleships and one cruiser were badly damaged and put out of action. Three hours after the attack, Japan declared war on Russia."
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"“Only destruction of the enemy can be called victory.”
"—Admiral Stepan Makarov"
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"Although war with Japan had been widely expected (and in some quarters, eagerly anticipated) in Russia, the attack on Port Arthur came as a stunning surprise. Still, neither the tsar nor Russia’s military and naval leaders were unduly concerned. Despite the losses suffered during the Japanese attack, the First Pacific Squadron was still a powerful force. In addition, large numbers of Russian troops were already in Manchuria, and more could be rushed to the area via the Trans-Siberian Railroad. Most seem to have been confident that it was only a matter of time before Japan was soundly defeated on land and at sea.
"The First Pacific Squadron was commanded by Admiral Oskar Starck, and even considering his initial losses, he still had a fleet of five battleships, five cruisers, and a host of destroyers and torpedo boats. The Japanese fleet, which maintained a blockade of Port Arthur, was roughly equivalent in size, but the tsar expected Starck to quickly sail out of the harbor and engage and defeat the Japanese fleet. Admiral Starck proved very reluctant to do this. While his fleet was at anchor in Port Arthur, it was protected by powerful Russian shore batteries; if it sailed out into the open ocean, it would lose this protection. Starck continually made excuses to justify his unwillingness to face the Japanese fleet.
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"Frustrated, the tsar replaced Starck in March with one of the most capable and charismatic of all Russian naval leaders: Vice-Admiral Stepan Makarov. Makarov was a very experienced maritime leader who was also shrewd and aggressive. From the moment of his arrival in Port Arthur, he began not just to reorganize the First Pacific Squadron but to imbue it with the fighting spirit it had lacked under its previous leader.
"In April, he was finally given to opportunity to engage parts of the Japanese fleet when a single Russian destroyer returning from patrol was attacked by Japanese destroyers. More Russian destroyers joined the action, and Makarov ordered elements of the First Pacific Squadron to leave port. Three Russian battleships (including Makarov’s flagship, the Petropavlovsk), five cruisers, and even more destroyers sailed out to take part in the action against the Japanese destroyers.
"As the early morning mist cleared, Makarov realized that he had sailed into a Japanese trap. The Japanese destroyers were supported by the whole Japanese fleet, including six battleships and six cruisers. As the first Japanese shells began to fall amongst the Russian ships, Admiral Makarov ordered the Russian fleet to return to Port Arthur. Within minutes, the Petropavlovsk hit a mine and sank, taking Admiral Makarov with it.
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"The loss of Admiral Makarov in the first clash between the Russian and Japanese fleets was a major blow to Russia. A new admiral named Wilgelm Vitgeft was appointed to lead the First Pacific Squadron. It soon became apparent that Vitgeft was unwilling to risk a confrontation with the Japanese fleet. Only after the tsar applied continuing pressure on the admiral did the First Pacific Squadron agree to sail out of Port Arthur once again in July 1904. After a brief and inconclusive engagement with the Japanese fleet, Vitgeft ordered a retreat to the safety of the port.
"He seemed determined to stay there, and it was only on the issue of an imperial writ by the tsar (and bizarrely, the threat of legal action against Vitgeft) that the Russian fleet sailed out once again in August. Vitgeft, on his flagship the Tsesarevich, led five Russian battleships, five cruisers, and a number of destroyers and torpedo boats in what it was hoped would be a decisive engagement with the Japanese fleet. The short battle did prove decisive, but not in the way that the tsar had hoped.
"Vitgeft was killed when a salvo of shells hit the Tsesarevich. The damaged battleship, accompanied by a number of destroyers, was able to make its way to the German-controlled port of Kiaochou, where all the Russian ships were impounded. The remainder of the Russian fleet broke up in confusion after the death of Vitgeft, and the vessels, many damaged, made their way back to the safety of Port Arthur. The warships of the First Pacific Squadron would play no further part in the war.
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"The complete failure of the First Pacific Squadron to take control of the seas was a major blow to the Russian war effort. While Russia could use the railroad to bring troops and supplies to Manchuria, the only way to move troops and supplies between the Japanese home islands and the battlefields in Manchuria and Korea was by sea. Before the war began, Russian strategists had presumed that Russia would quickly be able to take control of the ocean, preventing any attempt to use sea transport for Japanese forces. The abject failure of the First Pacific Squadron even to leave Port Arthur was a major setback to this strategy.
"With the sea lanes between Japan and Manchuria under Japanese control, Japan could resupply and reinforce its army units in Manchuria and Korea at will. This was an important development. The naval war was not separate from the land war but a significant factor in how it developed. Defeat in the naval war placed Russian troops on land at a notable disadvantage."
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"“Again war. Again sufferings, necessary to nobody, utterly uncalled for.”
"—Leo Tolstoy"
Reminds anyone else about something very similar by Shankaraachaarya, except he said it about life?
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"The first engagement on land in this war took place in northern Korea, near the small town of Wiju (present-day Sinuiju in North Korea). Japanese troops were known to be advancing north, up the Korean peninsula. The Russian Imperial Commander in the Far East, General Alexei Kuropatkin, decided not to oppose this move and instead to stop the Japanese advance on the natural barrier formed by the Yalu River in northern Korea. Thus, in April 1904, the Eastern Detachment (made up of 16,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry supported by artillery) was sent to take up a defensive position on the north bank of the river. Leading these troops was Lieutenant-General Mikhail Zasulich.
"Neither Kuropatkin nor Zasulich doubted that this would be easily accomplished. Both men had a very low opinion of the capabilities of Japanese soldiers, and while it was known that the Russian defenders would be outnumbered, it was assumed that they would be able to hold their positions without difficulty. Perhaps partly because of this complacency, Zasulich made a basic error in the disposition of his troops."
Did Hiroshima and Nagasaki have something to do with a racist avenging of not only Pearl Harbor but this supposedly first defeat of 'white' race by an Asian nation?
For surely, this wasn't an absolute first? Or did West think that the Mongolian conquerors who'd swarmed not only through Russia into Europe but gone right up your France, were somehow bestowed with supernatural powers?
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"Common sense suggests that the bulk of the Eastern Detachment should have been kept together, ready to strike when the main force of the Japanese advance was revealed. Instead, Zasulich spread his men out over defensive positions extending for 170 miles (270 kilometers). This made it certain that, when the Japanese did attack, they would have overwhelming superiority in the area they chose to attack. Not for the last time in this war, an error by a senior commander would leave Russian troops fighting a hopeless battle."
Hindsight, there, not common sense.
"The Russians waiting on the Yalu River would face the Japanese First Army, around 40,000 men commanded by Major-General Tamemoto Kuroki. With the seizure of several important Korean ports and the Japanese domination of the sea lanes between Korea and Japan, the army was well supplied and at full strength as it moved into northern Korea in late March.
"The first Japanese troops crossed the Yalu River on temporary bridges created by their engineers in the early hours of April 27. They immediately began to engage and push back the Russian defenders. Within less than two days, the whole Japanese First Army had crossed the river and was advancing to the north. By ten o’clock in the morning of April 29, Russian forces were in full retreat. General Kuropatkin instructed Zasulich to pull back to a more easily defended position. Zasulich refused, even sending a telegram to the tsar announcing that Russian forces were on the brink of a notable victory.
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"By May 1, the Eastern Detachment had disintegrated. All the troops involved were dead, captured, or fleeing to the north. In total, the Eastern Detachment suffered around 2,500 casualties and lost most of its field guns. The Japanese First Army meanwhile suffered around 1,000 casualties. The Eastern Detachment had failed to hold its positions or even to seriously impede the advance of Japanese forces into Korea. Just like the naval defeats off Port Arthur, this was a stunning shock to the Russian High Command. Most had confidently assumed that Japanese soldiers would not be able to fight well and would easily be defeated by Russia’s army. The Battle of the Yalu River proved this to be a dangerous misconception.
"The first large-scale land battle of this war would take place some three months later near the city of Liaoyang. With no Russian Naval units available to oppose them, four Japanese armies had landed on the Liaodong Peninsula in early August. One was sent south, toward Port Arthur, while three were sent north, toward Liaoyang. The Russian-controlled city of Liaoyang was an important nexus on the Trans-Siberian Railroad. If it could be captured, Port Arthur would be cut off from supplies and reinforcements. Both sides realized that the battle for Liaoyang could be decisive.
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"The defense of Liaoyang was overseen by General Kuropatkin himself. Under his command, he had around 160,000 men in a series of three concentric rings of defensive positions around the city. Opposing him were 120,000 Japanese troops under the command of General Oyama Iwao. The Japanese attack began on August 25, 1904. For two days, Japanese infantry advanced on the Russian positions. They made little progress and suffered heavy casualties, mainly from Russian artillery and machine guns. While his superiors expected that General Kuropatkin would mount a counter-attack the following day, instead, they were shocked when he ordered his troops to withdraw from the outer ring of fortifications.
"The Japanese assault was renewed on August 30 and 31, and once again, it was beaten off with heavy casualties. However, by September 1, Japanese forces had occupied some of the low hills surrounding the city and were able to use their artillery to shell the center of Liaoyang. General Kuropatkin was finally persuaded to mount a counter-attack, but muddled and missing orders meant that this did not take place, and instead, Russian forces withdrew from more of their defensive positions. On September 3, Kuropatkin made the decision to abandon Liaoyang altogether and to withdraw his army to the city of Mukden, 40 miles (65 kilometers) to the north.
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"This was not the decisive battle that either side had sought, but it did highlight some important factors. On the Russian side, faulty intelligence led General Kuropatkin to consistently overestimate the size of the Japanese forces facing him; he was certain that his army was facing a much larger Japanese force. The truth was that Kuropatkin commanded the larger force. On September 3, General Kuropatkin sent a telegram to the tsar claiming that he had won a major victory by avoiding the encirclement of his army by the Japanese. The truth was that he had abandoned a major city after just four days of fighting and without mounting any substantial counter-attack. The Japanese, for their part, were stunned at the scale of casualties they had suffered in just a few days of fighting: over 23.000 men killed, wounded, or missing. Sending infantry to assault entrenched positions protected by machine guns and artillery was more costly than anyone had anticipated.
"Even before the Battle of Liaoyang had begun, the Japanese Third Army under the command of General Nogi Maresuke was advancing south toward Port Arthur. The outer defense of Port Arthur consisted of a line of hills, each with a fortified position on top. Bizarrely, on hearing of the approach of Japanese forces, the Russian commander, Major-General Anatoly Stessel, ordered the withdrawal of Russian forces from these positions into the center of the city. This allowed Japanese forces to take fortified positions on the hills and to use their artillery to bombard the city from there. With the Japanese Navy blockading the sea approaches to Port Arthur and the Japanese Army blockading the land approach, Port Arthur was effectively under siege.
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"The Japanese bombardment of the city began on August 7. One of the strategically most important locations in the inner defenses of the city was a hill overlooking the harbor, 203 Meter Hill. This was occupied by Russian forces, but if it could be taken by the Japanese, they would be able to use their artillery to bombard the Russian warships in the harbor. On October 29, Japanese forces mounted a large-scale assault on this hill. This was beaten back by entrenched Russian infantry supported by artillery, the guns of the warships in the harbor, and machine guns. The Japanese attackers lost almost 4,000 men killed in this attack and gained little ground. As winter approached, both sides dug in and prepared for a long siege.
"Meanwhile, in Russia, plans were already being developed for a daring mission to relieve Port Arthur and to finally establish Russian naval supremacy in the region."
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"“Sacrifice the fleet if need be, but at the same time deliver a fatal blow to Japanese naval power.”
"—Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky"
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"In late June 1904, Tsar Nicholas presided over a conference involving senior military commanders to discuss the situation in Asia. Even at that time, the failure of the First Pacific Squadron to establish naval supremacy, or even to escape from Port Arthur, was obvious. The advance of Japanese land forces was a growing concern, and there seemed a real possibility that Port Arthur might be cut off.
"As ever, the main issue was naval power; if Russia controlled the sea lanes between Manchuria, Korea, and the Japanese home islands, Japanese land forces could be starved of supplies and reinforcements. A decision was taken for a bold rescue mission. A new Russian fleet would be created and sent to the Pacific to sweep the Japanese from the seas. There was one major problem: the only ships available for such a fleet were based in the Baltic, and reaching the seas off Korea would involve a journey of 18,000 miles (29,000 kilometers). Nevertheless, and because there did not appear to be any alternative, it was agreed that ships from the Baltic Fleet would be used to create a new Second Pacific Squadron and that these would be rushed to the Pacific as quickly as possible.
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"The man chosen to lead the new naval force was Rear Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky. Rozhestvensky was a seasoned naval commander who had successfully commanded Russian warships during the Russo-Turkish War. He seemed to be intelligent, ambitious, and utterly determined to succeed. However, he also had some personal qualities that made him less than an ideal choice as commander. He was unpredictable, swinging from optimism and aggression to abject depression unpredictably. He had a quick temper and a tendency to punish anything he viewed as a failure on the part of his subordinates with a punch in the face; it was even said that members of his personal staff could easily be recognized by their missing front teeth. Tact and diplomacy were not his strong points—in one official dispatch, he described one of his subordinate officers as “a sack of manure.”
"Nevertheless, Rozhestvensky was generally regarded as incorruptible and a competent gunnery officer. With few alternatives available, he was offered the position of commander of the Second Pacific Squadron. On paper, the fleet he would command looked impressive, comprising seven battleships, a number of cruisers, and a host of destroyers and torpedo boats. The reality was very different.
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"The four best ships in the fleet were the new Borodino Class battleships. These were powered by the latest triple-expansion steam engines, capable of propelling them at up to 18 knots. They were armed with four 12-inch guns in turrets supported by twelve additional 6-inch guns, also mounted in turrets. Each was protected by a thick belt of extra armor near the waterline. The problem was that these ships were seriously overweight. They sat so low in the water that their 6-inch guns were virtually awash and their armored belts almost completely below the waterline, where they were useless. These issues were not considered a fundamental problem because these ships were designed to operate in the relatively calm waters of the Baltic. However, in the open ocean, they would be at a serious disadvantage. Still, these were the best ships in the Second Pacific Squadron.
"The three remaining battleships were old designs intended for nothing more than coastal defense; they had never been intended to sail or fight in the open ocean. The cruiser Dimitri Donskoy had been launched in 1873 as a sailing ship and only recently upgraded with steam engines and armor. The cruiser Svetlana was little more than a sailing yacht to which guns and armor had been recently added. Of the 40 ships which were to comprise the Second Pacific Squadron, not one was a modern design capable of undertaking a trans-oceanic journey and effectively giving battle when it arrived.
................................................................................................
"Even more serious was the question of coal. Steam-powered warships require coal—lots of coal. To complete the mammoth voyage, some of the battleships would require replenishment with coal every two to three days. It was estimated that it would require half a million tons of coal for the fleet to make its way to Asia, but Russia possessed not a single coaling station on the planned route. A contract was signed with the German Hamburg-America Line, which agreed to provide a massive fleet of 60 colliers that would accompany the Second Pacific Squadron in order to keep the fleet supplied with coal. However, that meant coaling at sea, a grueling and dangerous activity in the open ocean. Each ship of the fleet would have to do this at least 60 times on the voyage from the Baltic to the Pacific.
"During July and August, Rozhestvensky took elements of his new fleet on training exercises in the Baltic. The results were not encouraging. Few of the ships could reliably hit any target, and their ability to maneuver and keep formation was abysmal. Nevertheless, the dismal news from Port Arthur and Liaoyang in August made it imperative that the new fleet sailed as soon as possible. The journey would take several months, and if there was to be any hope of defeating the Japanese fleet and easing the pressure on Russian ground forces, they must leave quickly.
................................................................................................
"On October 4, 1904, the Second Pacific Squadron left the port of Kronstadt, destination Port Arthur. During the night of October 21, having covered only the first 500 miles of its 18,000-mile journey, the fleet was sailing in the North Sea. Suddenly, one of the Russian ships announced that it was being attacked by Japanese torpedo boats. The Russian ships began shelling small ships that could barely be discerned in the darkness. Several of the Russian ships were hit by gunfire, and one reported that it was being boarded by Japanese troops.
"It was only when dawn arrived that it was realized that the Japanese torpedo boats were actually unarmed British fishing vessels. All the damage to Russian ships had been caused by friendly fire. One British trawler was sunk, six were damaged, and three British fishermen were killed and six injured. The only reason that British casualties were not heavier was the appalling inaccuracy of Russian gunfire.
................................................................................................
"Undeterred, Rozhestvensky sailed on, still claiming that he had been attacked, despite the fact that the nearest Japanese warship was more than 15,000 miles (24,000 kilometers) away. This incident caused a major diplomatic row between Russia and Britain that came close to causing a war between the two nations. Unaware of this, the Second Pacific Squadron sailed through the English Channel and then south, following the coast of Europe and then Africa."
Was Arctic coastline of Russia impossible?
"As they encountered high temperatures off the coast of southern Africa, conditions on the ships of the fleet (which had been designed for the cold waters of the Baltic) became unendurable. Temperatures in the engineering spaces of some of the ships (which lacked the ventilation needed to operate in high temperatures) exceeded 140 degrees Fahrenheit (60 degrees Celsius). Men collapsed from heat exhaustion and dehydration. Some died, especially during the hard physical work required from coaling.
"Despite these problems, the fleet continued. The situation in Manchuria had deteriorated so severely that it seemed only the arrival of the Second Pacific Fleet in Port Arthur could prevent a disastrous Russian defeat."
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
"“The Japanese are beating us with machine guns, but never mind: we’ll beat them with icons.”
"—General Mikhail Dragomirov"
Icons?
................................................................................................
"While the Second Pacific Fleet was on its way, the siege of Port Arthur continued. Both sides recognized the importance of 203 Meter Hill, and on November 26, 1904, Japanese forces mounted a major attack on this position. In a battle that prefigured the later carnage of World War I, Japanese troops failed to take entrenched Russian positions protected by barbed wire and covered by machine guns and artillery. As many as 4,000 Japanese soldiers died during the assault, and they gained little ground. The attack was renewed on November 28, but again, the Japanese suffered serious losses and gained little ground. The battle for this low hill raged for one week until, on December 5, 203 Meter Hill was finally occupied by Japanese troops. The cost had been high: in the final assault alone, the Japanese suffered more than 8,000 casualties.
"The capture of this hill was the turning point in the siege of Port Arthur. With artillery spotters on the hill, the Japanese were able to bombard the Russian warships below with massed fire from heavy 11-inch howitzers firing armor-piercing shells. Between December 5 and 9, all but one of the Russian battleships and cruisers in the harbor were sunk by Japanese artillery fire. The First Pacific Squadron effectively ceased to exist as a fighting force.
................................................................................................
"With the fleet neutralized, the Japanese artillery fire was turned on the last Russian defensive positions. On January 2, 1905, Russian forces in Port Arthur surrendered. The battle for Port Arthur cost Russian forces more than 30,000 killed, wounded, or missing and 25,000 taken prisoner. Japanese forces suffered up to 60,000 casualties, but nevertheless, by January 1905, Port Arthur was in Japanese hands. Russia’s only port in the region would not be available to the Second Pacific Squadron when it finally arrived. Leaving an occupation force to hold the port, General Nogi ordered the remnants of his army to march north, to support the Japanese armies who were preparing for an assault on the Russian stronghold in the city of Mukden.
"Following their withdrawal from the city of Liaoyang, Russian forces had moved north to take up defensive positions on the Shaho River, south of the city of Mukden. Russian forces mounted two counter-attacks, fighting two large battles in October and November at Shaho and Sandepu. Although these battles slowed the Japanese advance, neither produced a decisive victory. Japanese forces continued to move north, and it became clear to both sides that the coming battle would decide the outcome of the land war.
................................................................................................
"With the movement north of the army of General Nogi, the entire Japanese ground force in Manchuria was assembled for the attack on Mukden. Despite the onset of bitterly cold winter weather, there was pressure on Japanese forces to achieve a quick victory before the arrival of the Second Pacific Squadron. On the Russian side, General Kuropatkin had expected to receive significant reinforcement via the Trans-Siberian Railway, but events at home made this impossible.
"Growing dissatisfaction with the war and the shortages of essential supplies that it brought had been causing unrest in Russia. On Sunday, January 22, a large crowd of protestors approached the palace in St. Petersburg hoping to deliver a petition to the tsar. Instead, they were attacked by units of the Russian Army. Up to one thousand unarmed protestors were killed or injured on what became known as Bloody Sunday. This massacre caused a wave of outrage that spread across Russia, and protests and demonstrations occurred in a number of Russian cities. The tsar was no longer willing to send troops to Manchuria, believing that these were needed to maintain order in Russia itself.
................................................................................................
"Despite his lack of reinforcement, General Kuropatkin had a large force under his command, a total of over 290,000 troops. Opposing him were Japanese forces of around 270,000 men. The battle for the city of Mukden would be the largest land battle up to that point in history. It began with several coordinated Japanese attacks on February 20. In the face of entrenched Russian defenses, these made little progress and caused large numbers of Japanese casualties.
"Then, on March 7, General Kuropatkin began to transfer forces from the east of the city to the west, where General Nogi’s army was preparing for an attack. Withdrawing while in contact with the enemy is one of the most hazardous battlefield maneuvers, and parts of the Russian Army descended into chaos as they attempted to do this.
"On the following day, Kuropatkin decided to move his whole army north toward the city to take up new positions on the Hun River. This was a catastrophic error. Japanese forces pursued and harried the retreating Russians. By March 9, Japanese forces had occupied positions on the north bank of the Hun River and all but encircled the Russian troops. Thus, in the evening, General Kuropatkin gave the order for a general Russian withdrawal from Mukden. As the Russian forces fled north toward the Sino-Russian border, Japanese forces occupied the city of Mukden, the only remaining Russian-controlled city in Manchuria.
................................................................................................
"The battle for the city of Mukden was the first truly modern land battle involving machine guns, trenches, and artillery support. During the ten-day battle, Japanese forces expended more than 20 million rifle and machine gun rounds and a quarter of a million artillery shells. Casualties were horrendous. Japanese forces involved in the battle suffered around 90,000 men killed, wounded, or missing, while Russian losses were around 70,000. With these casualties and their massive expenditure of ammunition, the Japanese armies were exhausted and unable to pursue General Kuropatkin’s force as it retreated.
"The remnants of the Russian force reached Russian territory relatively intact, but this barely mattered. Russian forces had been ejected from Manchuria, and every major land battle to date had resulted in a victory for the Japanese. The Russian Army in Southeast Asia was a spent force and could not realistically be expected to try to retake territory in Manchuria. This outcome was shocking to the Russian High Command and a great surprise to many European nations, which had assumed that European troops would automatically win any engagement with Asian troops.
"However, though there would be no further land battles in the region, the war was not yet over. All Russian hopes of salvaging something from this war rested with the Second Pacific Squadron, which was still en route. If this fleet could inflict a major defeat on the Japanese Navy, it might at least be possible to negotiate peace terms that were not too harsh. The Japanese also recognized this, and both sides began to prepare for a single massive naval engagement."
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
"“Admiral Rozhdestvensky was a man of strong will, courageous and ardently devoted to his work, a skilled organizer of supplies and an economic unit, an excellent sailor, but devoid of the slightest shadow of military talent.”
"—Report of the Historical Commission of the Russian General Naval Staff, 1912"
................................................................................................
"By December 1904, the Second Pacific Squadron had arrived in Madagascar. Admiral Rozhestvensky had wanted to press-on toward Port Arthur as quickly as possible, but several of his ships were in poor condition and in urgent need of refit and repair. He was forced to wait until this work was complete.
"While this work was still in progress, news arrived that Port Arthur had fallen to the Japanese. It was becoming increasingly clear to the Russian High Command that the performance of this fleet against the Japanese would be a critical factor in deciding the outcome of the war. As a result, they informed Rozhestvensky that another new squadron, the Third Pacific Squadron, was being assembled in the Baltic. The admiral was ordered to wait in Madagascar until these reinforcements reached him.
................................................................................................
"He was not at all happy with this news. The ships being assembled in the Baltic were those that he had already rejected as being unsuitable for any battle against the Japanese. These were old ships with inadequate armaments and poor seaworthiness. The view of the Russian High Command was simple if brutal; they knew that the additional ships they were sending out could not hope to fight effectively against modern Japanese warships. But they would provide additional targets for Japanese guns, and that might help to protect the more effective warships in Rozhestvensky’s fleet.
"Still, the admiral sent an angry cable to St. Petersburg: “I have not the slightest prospect of recovering command of the sea with the force under my orders. The dispatch of reinforcements composed of untested and in some cases badly built vessels could only render the fleet more vulnerable.” Rozhestvensky’s concerns were ignored, and he was ordered to wait in Madagascar for the arrival of the Third Pacific Squadron.
................................................................................................
"In late April, he took his fleet to Cam Rahn Bay in French Indo-China (present-day Vietnam). On May 9, they were joined by the ships of the Third Pacific Squadron. Five days later, the Russian fleet left on the final stage of their staggering journey. In public, Rozhestvensky remained positive about the prospects of battle with the Japanese, issuing an order of the day to the fleet that noted, “Our strength is on a par with the Japanese and in point of numbers we are stronger.”
"In private, he recognized that numbers mattered little; many of the Russian warships were antiquated designs with ineffective armament, and their gunners were poorly trained and inexperienced. In any battle, he would almost certainly lose. Instead, the admiral simply hoped to take his ships to the safety of harbor in Vladivostok, avoiding contact with the Japanese fleet. There were three possible routes that the Russian fleet could take to reach Vladivostok, and Rozhestvensky chose the most direct, through the Tsushima Strait which separated the coasts of Japan and Korea. He hoped that if they steamed with all possible speed, they might be able to avoid contact with the Japanese.
................................................................................................
"Unfortunately, his adversary, Japanese Admiral Togo, had already guessed that Tsushima was the most likely route that the Russian fleet would follow. Japanese patrol vessels were sent to the strait, and a network of wooden observation towers was built from which a watch could be kept. Togo kept the Japanese fleet in readiness in the harbor of Masampo in Japan, ready to sail out if the Russian ships were spotted. In the early hours of May 27, the Russian fleet was spotted by a Japanese patrol vessel. Togo took the Japanese fleet out of port to take up position east of the strait. At a little before two pm in the afternoon, the two fleets spotted one another. The battle began soon after.
"What became known as the Battle of Tsushima proved to be another notable Japanese victory. By 9:30 that evening, almost every vessel of the combined Russian fleet was either sunk or had fled or surrendered. Only two Russian destroyers and one light cruiser were able to escape and reach Vladivostok. Russian casualties amounted to over 5,800 men killed, wounded, or missing. The Japanese fleet lost just three torpedo boats in the battle and suffered just 700 casualties. Admiral Rozhestvensky was captured after having been rendered unconscious when a Japanese shell hit the bridge of his flagship.
................................................................................................
"Soon after, the Russian island of Sakhalin was occupied by a combined amphibious operation undertaken by the Japanese Army and Navy. With no remaining significant naval forces in the area, Russia was powerless to resist this occupation. With the defeat at Tsushima and the occupation of Sakhalin, it became clear that Russia was going to lose the war. At home, the response to the defeat at Tsushima simply increased opposition to the tsar who, as overall commander of all Russian forces, was blamed for the defeat. The tsar wanted the war to be concluded as quickly as possible in order to focus on quelling growing unrest at home.
"The Japanese, too, were keen to end the war quickly. Despite their military successes, the cost of the war was proving ruinous, and by early 1905, the Japanese treasury was close to bankruptcy. When U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt offered to mediate a peace treaty, both sides were happy to agree."
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
"“Defeat is a common fate of a soldier and there is nothing to be ashamed of in it.”
"—Admiral Togo Heihachiro"
................................................................................................
"When the Russo-Japanese War began, President Roosevelt seemed to favor the Japanese, but as the war progressed and the Japanese scored victory after victory, his support turned to concern. No one had expected such an emphatic triumph by Japan on land and at sea, and the U.S. president became worried that growing Japanese power in the Pacific might present a threat to the United States."
Came true in his cousin's administration.
"In February 1905, Roosevelt had offered to mediate peace terms, which both sides refused. The Russians still hoped to hold the city of Mukden at that point and believed that the reinforcements sent from the Baltic might prove decisive in the naval war. The Japanese, for their part, hoped to achieve a decisive victory against Russian land and naval forces.
"Finally, in March, the Japanese war minister met with the American minister to Japan, Lloyd Griscom, to announce that Japan was ready to begin peace negotiations. This message was passed to the president, though the Russians, still hopeful of a major naval victory, were not interested. It was not until receiving news of the defeat at Tsushima in May that the tsar and his senior military and political leaders met and finally decided that they must seek peace terms.
................................................................................................
"By early June, both sides had agreed to attend American-brokered peace talks. As a venue, President Roosevelt chose the city of Portsmouth in New Hampshire. Both delegations arrived in Portsmouth on August 8, and formal negotiations began. The Japanese delegation was intent on securing the payment of indemnities by Russia, as the Japanese treasury was desperate for funds. However, although he seemed generally sympathetic to Japan, President Roosevelt quickly made it clear that he had no intention of supporting this claim.
"In other negotiations too, the Japanese delegation was disappointed with the progress. Although Japanese forces had occupied Sakhalin, they were forced to give back the northern part of the island to Russia. Russia was forced to recognize Korea as part of the Japanese sphere of influence and to give up its lease on Port Arthur, but Japan had expected that all of Southeast Asia would fall within its power. These things effectively stopped Russia’s expansion into Asia, but they failed to satisfy the Japanese. After all, Japan had comprehensively won several major naval engagements and had driven Russian ground forces out of Manchuria and Korea.
................................................................................................
"At home, most Japanese had expected that victory in this war would lead to all of Southeast Asia being recognized as being within the sphere of influence of the Japanese Empire and that Japan would receive hefty indemnity payments from Russia. When these things failed to happen, and the terms of the treaty negotiated at Portsmouth became known in Japan, there was widespread anger and disappointment.
"In September 1905, violent riots in Tokyo were suppressed by armed police and army personnel. Seventeen people died and many more were injured, and these protests led directly to the fall of the government of the Japanese prime minister, Katsura Taro. Despite their victory, many Japanese people were left feeling that they had been cheated of their just rewards and blamed America and President Roosevelt for thwarting their expansion in Asia."
Hence Pearl Harbor?
................................................................................................
"Nevertheless, the treaty was signed by both Russia and Japan on September 5 and ratified by both governments in October. The signing of this treaty and the conclusion of the war fundamentally changed the balance of power not just in Asia but in Europe too. The Japanese Empire became the dominant power in Asia and continued to grow and expand. The weaknesses in the Russian Army that the war had exposed changed the attitudes in Europe.
"Before the war, Russia had been regarded as a major power. This war underlined that, while the Russian Army might be large, it was not well led and had proved unable to stop the smaller army of Japan. The Russian Navy began the war as the third largest in the world, but the catastrophic losses of warships at Port Arthur and Tsushima left it as a second-rate navy. A massive program of shipbuilding began in Russia almost as soon as the war ended; still, it would take many years to make good the losses from this war and even longer for the Russian Navy to regain a reputation as an effective force.
................................................................................................
"These issues, coupled with growing internal instability within Russia, encouraged some European powers, notably the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, to consider for the first time whether they might be able to defeat Russia in a war. Indirectly, this led to the system of alliances that would precipitate World War I just nine years later.
"Meanwhile, the United States emerged from the process of helping to negotiate the Treaty of Portsmouth as, for the first time, a major force in international diplomacy. President Roosevelt was even awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906, though he personally took no part in the negotiations."
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
"In retrospect, it is clear that the Russo-Japanese War of 1904/1905 was a watershed moment in world affairs. For the first time in modern history, an Asian nation had shown that it was capable of fighting and winning against the military forces of one of the most powerful European nations. Many Japanese, both in the armed forces and elsewhere, were left with the belief that their army and navy were unbeatable. If they could defeat Russia, then why not America or any other European country? This helped to fuel a growing nationalist and expansionist movement in Japan in the 1920s and 1930s.
"When Japan opened its war on the United States in 1941, it was a direct repeat of the surprise attack on the Russian fleet in Port Arthur in 1904. The attack on the U.S. fleet at Pearl Harbor caused much more damage than the attack in Port Arthur, but it soon became clear that Japan would not be able to repeat its victories over the Russian fleet when facing the U.S. Navy. The confidence that followed the victory in the Russo-Japanese War encouraged many Japanese to believe that they could defeat any naval power; World War II proved this to be a fallacy.
................................................................................................
"In military terms too, this war was pivotal. For the first time, the factors that would define warfare for much of the twentieth century were seen in action: entrenchments manned by troops using breach-loading rifles and protected by barbed wire entanglements and fixed machine guns. The resulting casualties were higher than anything seen before. The total number killed was around 150,000 with many, many more seriously wounded and succumbing to disease. Around 20,000 Chinese civilians also died during this war.
"Military observers from America and several European countries witnessed the carnage that this new form of warfare brought. Frontal attacks by infantry on entrenched positions covered by machine guns were suicidal. Cavalry, formerly a vital element of any army, could not be used in the face of such defenses. Sadly, while they may have observed, few military leaders seem to have learned.
................................................................................................
"When World War I began in August 1914, most commanders still thought in terms of sending waves of infantry against enemy positions. The carnage of the Western Front and the failure of either side to make appreciable progress against fixed positions were a repeat of what had been seen in the Russo-Japanese War. It would not be until the widespread development of tanks and other armored fighting vehicles in the 1930s that warfare would once again become fluid and mobile.
"The war also brought important changes in opinions and attitudes. Prior to this war, there is good evidence that many western leaders regarded the Japanese people as inferior and their military forces as ineffective compared to those of the western nations. The emphatic Japanese victory on land and at sea did begin to change that view, though many ascribed the outcome of the war to Russia’s weakness rather than particular Japanese strengths.
................................................................................................
"For the Russian Empire, this war was the beginning of the end. At first, the Russian people did rally behind the nation, as the tsar had hoped. But soon, as Russian defeats began to mount and the war caused shortages at home, that support drained away. Confidence in the tsar and his regime began to evaporate, and the massacre of protestors on Bloody Sunday is now seen as the first step toward the Russian Revolution of 1917.
"Wars often lead to change. Few wars lead to change as fundamental in every respect as the Russo-Japanese War."
Surely treachery by cousin Willie had more to do with both bolshevik takeover and massacre of his royal cousins' family?
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Table of Contents
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Introduction
Russian Expansion
Japanese Expansion
An Unexpected Attack
Death of Two Admirals
The War on Land
A Voyage Around the World
The Battle of Mukden
Failure at Tsushima
The End of the War
Conclusion
Bibliography
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REVIEW
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Introduction
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................................................................................................
"When comparing military forces, it’s tempting to focus on numbers—numbers of troops, guns, or ships. But less easily quantified factors impact an army or navy’s performance just as much as quantity. Morale, training, how intelligence is gathered and used, and the ability and experience of commanders all have a profound impact on how any military unit performs on the battlefield.
"Nowhere did this become more apparent than during the short war between the Russian and Japanese Empires in 1904 and 1905. The Russian Empire had the largest standing army in the world and the third largest navy. Russian military forces had almost two hundred years of experience in combat, and Russia was able to send almost two million troops to protect its acquisitions in Korea and Manchuria (northeastern China). The army and navy of the Japanese Empire were smaller and had a much shorter history of combat in the modern age. Japan was able to send only around 400,000 men to Korea and Manchuria—a sizeable army, but much smaller than that of their Russian adversaries.
................................................................................................
"In addition, until the 1860s, Japan was largely isolated from the rest of the world and remained a feudal, largely agrarian society. Only after the Meiji Restoration did Japan begin to industrialize and build well-equipped, modern armed forces.
"When these two empires came into conflict over territory in Asia, few people doubted that Russia would quickly triumph. Underlying this assumption was the inherent racism of the period; at the beginning of the twentieth century, most people assumed that Europeans were somehow innately superior to Asians. This led to a belief the European soldiers were also superior to their Asian counterparts and would therefore quickly win any war between east and west.
................................................................................................
"The first major war of the twentieth century undermined all these assumptions. The rise of the Japanese Empire showed that Asians were just as capable as Europeans and that intelligent, motivated Asian soldiers and leaders could win against a larger European enemy. This war demonstrated that the Russian Empire was not as powerful as it seemed and led the Japanese Empire toward the zenith of its power.
"The Russo-Japanese War also introduced new weapons and new tactics that caused casualties on a much larger scale than anything seen before, something that would find its final and most devastating expression just ten years later in World War I."
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October 24, 2022 - October 24, 2022.
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CHAPTER 1. Russian Expansion
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................................................................................................
"“The absorption of Manchuria by Russia would render it impossible to maintain the integrity of China, and would, in addition, compel the abandonment of all hope for peace in the Extreme East.”
"—Emperor Meiji"
................................................................................................
"As the nineteenth century drew to a close, the Russian Empire was one of the most powerful nations on the planet. Geographically, this was also one of the largest nations, covering almost one-sixth of the earth’s landmass. The building of railroads had linked many parts of the empire than had previously been inaccessible, but even by train, it took more than ten days to travel from the Black Sea in the west to Vladivostok in the east.
"In military terms, Russia had one of the largest standing armies in the world. However, the Russian defeat in the Crimean War in 1856 had exposed serious deficiencies in military units. Soldiers received little training beyond what was needed to look smart on the parade ground, and equipment and supplies were poor as both soldiers and men regularly sold off food and weapons.
................................................................................................
"During the reign of Tsar Alexander II from 1855 to 1881, significant reforms were introduced. These included compulsory military service (lasting for six years) for all Russian men aged 20, which led to the creation of better-trained units and to the establishment of a large military reserve of trained men who could be called up in a time of war. By the end of the nineteenth century, and if reserves and militias were included, the Imperial Russian Army could call on up to three million men. In comparison, the army of the British Empire at the same time numbered less than 400,000 men with no pool of trained reservists to call upon in times of war. When an international military force was assembled to protect European residents in China during the Boxer Rebellion from 1899 to 1901, Russia was able to provide 100,000 troops while Britain contributed only 12,000.
"The Russian Navy was also a powerful force at this time. An expanded building program instituted by Tsar Nichols II saw the Russian Navy become the third largest in the world, behind only Britain and France. The main element of this navy was the Baltic Fleet, based in the port of Kronstadt, west of the city of St. Petersburg. The Imperial Russian Navy also had a Pacific Fleet based in the port of Vladivostok and a Black Sea Fleet based in Odessa in the Crimea.
................................................................................................
"Because the port of Vladivostok was covered in ice for part of the year, the Russian Empire used the threat of military action in 1897 to force the tottering regime in China to grant Russia a 25-year lease on the Liaodong Peninsula in Manchuria. This Included Port Arthur, a large port originally created by the British and more recently occupied by the Japanese after the First Sino-Japanese war (1894-1895). The port was an important acquisition for Russia, as it was ice-free at all times and provided Russia, for the first time, with year-round access to the Pacific Ocean.
"Russia immediately began to send warships to Port Arthur; by 1904, the First Pacific Squadron comprised seven battleships and seven cruisers, as well as many smaller warships. The smaller Siberian Military Flotilla remained stationed in Vladivostok. The construction of a railway from Port Arthur up the Liaodong Peninsula also began as soon as Russia took control of the port. By 1903, this railroad line connected with the Russian-controlled Chinese Eastern Railway, which in turn connected to the main Russian rail system. From 1901, it became possible to travel from St. Petersburg to Port Arthur by train on what became known as the Trans-Siberian Railway. This allowed the rapid transit of troops, supplies, and weapons to the port, which Russia quickly began to fortify.
................................................................................................
"Port Arthur became an essential element in Russian foreign policy, which was increasingly looking to Asia for the possibility of expansion. Russia had no desire to become involved in a war with any European power. Britain, France, and the German Empire had strong armies and powerful navies, and any war there involved the risk of catastrophic defeat. The possibility for expansion in Asia seemed to offer better opportunities.
"Korea, in particular, looked to provide access to new markets and new sources of raw materials without the risk of a war against any European nation. The Korean Empire was created in 1897 after the defeat of China in the First Sino-Japanese War brought the nation independence for the first time. The Korean Empire was nominally neutral, though in truth it had formed close diplomatic relations with Russia. Many people believed that Russia intended to turn Korea into a protectorate of the Russian Empire.
"Meanwhile, another power in the region also had designs on Korea and viewed the prospect of continuing Russian expansion with grave concern."
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October 24, 2022 - October 24, 2022.
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CHAPTER 2. Japanese Expansion
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"“It goes without saying that when survival is threatened, struggles erupt between peoples, and unfortunate wars between nations result.”
"—Hideki Tojo"
................................................................................................
"Up until 1868, Japan pursued a policy that was isolationist and intended to preserve traditional values. The Tokugawa shogunate (which had ruled Japan since 1603) preserved feudal values and, as far as possible, excluded Japan from foreigners. After a civil war, this system of rule was overthrown, and an emperor installed was as the ruler of Japan. Emperor Meiji would lead Japan for the next forty years through a period of social upheaval and rapid industrialization.
"The new rulers of Japan sought contact with the west. Although they still retained traditional Japanese social and cultural values, they understood that to become a powerful modern nation, they needed to adopt western technologies and approaches. This applied particularly to military technology. As an island, naval power was extremely important to Japan.
................................................................................................
"Under the policy of sakoku (seclusion) imposed by the Tokugawa shogunate, the building of ocean-going ships was absolutely forbidden. Almost as soon as Emperor Meiji was established on the throne, it was recognized that Japan would need a strong navy. In 1870, it was decided that Britain, at that time the nation with the most powerful navy in the world, would serve as the model for the new Japanese Navy. British officers taught at the new Japanese naval academy, and warships ordered for the Japanese Navy were constructed in British shipyards.
"In the 1880s, an arms race began with Japan attempting to build a navy powerful enough to challenge its main rival in the region, China. The Japanese Navy was by now equipped with their modern warships constructed in Britain, while China ordered a number of equivalent ships from Imperial Germany. The main focus of enmity between Japan and China was the Korean peninsula.
................................................................................................
"Japan viewed Korea as a significant source of natural resources that were scarce on the Japanese home islands. China regarded Korea as a tributary state, and an increasing Japanese presence in the region caused mounting concern. In 1882 and 1884, several diplomatic incidents in Korea came close to causing war. As a result, a treaty was signed in 1885 under which China and Japan agreed that neither nation would send troops to the area without first consulting the other."
In short, Korea in Asia was Poland of Europe.
"In 1894, Korea’s rulers requested China to send troops to the area to help crush a local rebellion. In response, Japan also rushed troops and naval forces to Korea. After the rebellion was successfully overcome, neither nation would agree to withdraw its troops. Inevitably, fighting soon broke out, and the ensuing First Sino-Japanese War was a disaster for China. During a naval battle off the mouth of the Yalu River in September 1894, two-thirds of the Chinese fleet was sunk. On land too, the modernized Japanese Army proved to be superior to their Chinese counterparts. The war ended in April 1895 with a treaty that gave Japan notable concessions. China agreed that the island of Formosa, the Pescadores Islands, and the Liaotung Peninsula would all be ceded to Japan.
................................................................................................
"Russia, France, and Germany were concerned that these acquisitions would give Japan too much power in the region. They intervened, changing the terms of the treaty and forcing Japan to return the strategically important Liaotung Peninsula to Chinese control. That was a serious blow to Japanese national prestige, and the situation was made even more difficult when, two years later, Russia forced China to agree to lease the Liaotung Peninsula and Port Arthur. During the Boxer Rebellion from 1899 to 1901, large numbers of Russian troops were sent to China, and many remained as a virtual occupation force in Manchuria. Korea, recognizing that it could no longer rely on Chinese support, began to look to Russia as a potential ally."
That brings Korea in a position somewhat comparable with Afghanistan, or Greece in the same time span.
"Japan viewed Russian expansion into Manchuria and the growing Russian presence in Korea with extreme suspicion. The Russian occupation of Port Arthur was particularly galling to many Japanese people, who viewed this strategically important harbor as rightfully belonging to Japan following their victory in the First Sino-Japanese War. However, Japan was not in a position to take on the combined military might of Russia backed by France and Germany and was forced to accept the growing Russian presence in Asia.
................................................................................................
"In 1902, Japan signed a very significant treaty with Britain. The Anglo-Japanese Alliance pledged both countries to intervene if the other was attacked by two or more other nations but allowed both to remain neutral if the other was attacked by only one country. From the Japanese perspective, this was a vital treaty. By 1902, many Japanese were coming to see Russia as the single most significant impediment to Japanese expansion in Korea. Some even began to regard war with Russia as inevitable. Japanese military leaders believed that Japan might be able to defeat Russia alone but that it could not hope to win against Russia if it was supported by other powerful European nations.
"The Anglo-Japanese Alliance seemed to make it possible for Japan to fight Russia alone. If other European nations did decide to intervene, they would also face Britain with its powerful navy. Thus, from the time that this alliance was signed, the Japanese secretly began planning for war with Russia."
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October 24, 2022 - October 24, 2022.
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CHAPTER 3. An Unexpected Attack
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"“To avert a revolution, we need a small victorious war.”
"—Vyacheslav Plehve, Russian Minister of the Interior"
................................................................................................
"In 1894, Tsar Alexander III died and was succeeded by his son, Nicholas II. Nicholas did not feel that he was ready to take on the rule of Russia, telling one official on hearing news of his father’s death, “I know nothing of the business of ruling.”
"As tsar, Nicholas inherited the rule of a country that was riven by internal strife and dissent. In the 1880s and 1890s, Russia went through a period of rapid industrialization. This led to greatly increased urban populations in the main cities, but low wages, dreadful housing, and dangerous working conditions led to calls for change and improvement. Liberal politicians called for the introduction of some form of parliamentary democracy to modify the absolute power of the tsar. Others called for radical, even revolutionary change. Many who believed in the latter formed secret societies dedicated to overthrowing the rule of the tsar; one such group, the People’s Will, had succeeded in assassinating Tsar Alexander II in St. Petersburg in 1881. Other assassinations of local and national political leaders followed, and strikes and demonstrations became commonplace.
................................................................................................
"Tsar Nicholas II refused to contemplate any change that would reduce his power; he really did seem to believe that his rule had been ordained by God. Soon after becoming tsar, he was approached by a group of liberal politicians who urged him to consider establishing some form of democratic government. He dismissed these notions as “senseless dreams” and refused to consider any change at all. Strikes, protests, and assassinations thus continued.
"In 1902, the minister of the interior, Dmitry Sipyagin, was assassinated by a member of a secret socialist revolutionary group. The tsar responded to this unrest by increasing oppression and state control of the press. Members of the Okhrana (Guard), a secret police force controlled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, were given increased powers and instructed to focus on revolutionary groups. Hundreds of people were arrested and imprisoned, but demands for fundamental change within Russia continued to grow.
................................................................................................
"Still, Nicholas refused to consider any change that he saw as undermining the power and authority of the tsar. He seemed to believe that Russian expansion into Asia would give access to new resources and new markets that would improve conditions for the people of Russia and, in turn, undermine the revolutionary movement. He also seems to have viewed most Asian people with contempt, reserving a particular dislike for the Japanese.
"Before taking the throne, Nicholas had undertaken a state visit to Japan in 1881. One of the Japanese police officers detailed to guard him had been a Japanese nationalist, and he had attempted to assassinate Nicholas with a sword. The attack failed to kill the future tsar, but it left him with a visible scar on his head, a tendency to crippling headaches, and a loathing of Japanese people. Even in official documents, Nicholas was known to refer to the Japanese as “makaki” (meaning monkeys)."
Wasn't he accompanied on this trip by one of his English - royal - cousins?
................................................................................................
"He certainly wasn’t alone in this inherent racism. Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany was one of the first people to coin the phrase “yellow peril” to describe the rise of Chinese and Japanese power in the region. Nicholas, Wilhelm, and others also seemed to believe implicitly in the inherent inferiority of the Asian races. People such as the Japanese might have adopted western ways, and they might even have modern armies and navies, but few doubted that if it came to war between east and west, the supposed inherent superiority of the white man would quickly prevail.
"The fact that Russian expansion in Asia, and particularly the Russian occupation of Port Arthur and growing Russian influence in Korea, stirred up conflict with Japan caused the tsar few worries. After all, if it came to war, surely it wouldn’t take long for the mighty Russian Army and Navy to crush the presumptuous Japanese? There was also a feeling amongst some members of the Russian ruling class that a war might not be a bad thing. War would unite Russia in a wave of nationalist sentiment. Obviously, the war would have to be victorious, and it would be better if it was short. That effectively ruled out any war with a major European nation, but perhaps a short, successful war against, for example, Japan might not be a bad thing for Russia, these nobles surmised.
................................................................................................
"Russia continued to build defenses in Port Arthur and to pour troops into Manchuria. In Japan, there were large demonstrations, both directly against Russia and against the Japanese government, for failing to curb Russian expansion into Asia. A series of diplomatic negotiations between Japan and Russia in 1903 and early 1904 made little progress. Russia was not willing to contemplate any change in its situation in Manchuria or the Liaotung Peninsula or to reduce its growing presence in Korea. Many Japanese diplomats felt that Russia was not serious about seeking a diplomatic solution to the problem. They were probably right; many of the Russian diplomats probably welcomed the prospect of a war they believed they could quickly win.
"By early 1904, many Japanese military and political leaders had become convinced that war with Russia was inevitable. They believed that the Anglo-Japanese Alliance should prevent the intervention of any other European power, but the fact remained that Japanese naval and army units were outnumbered by their Russian counterparts. If it was to win, Japan had to begin the war with a surprise attack on the main Russian fleet in Port Arthur. In an eerie foreshadowing of the attack on the U.S. fleet in Pearl Harbor less than forty years later, it was decided that the Japanese fleet would attack Russia in a pre-emptive strike without any declaration of war."
That's silly. It wasn't, isn't, "eerie foreshadowing" at all, on the contrary - it's merely repetition of a strategy that was tested and successful.
"During the night of February 8, 1904, a Japanese battle fleet under the command of Admiral Togo Heihachiro attacked the Russian First Pacific Squadron in Port Arthur. Two Russian battleships and one cruiser were badly damaged and put out of action. Three hours after the attack, Japan declared war on Russia."
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October 24, 2022 - October 24, 2022.
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CHAPTER 4. Death of Two Admirals
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"“Only destruction of the enemy can be called victory.”
"—Admiral Stepan Makarov"
................................................................................................
"Although war with Japan had been widely expected (and in some quarters, eagerly anticipated) in Russia, the attack on Port Arthur came as a stunning surprise. Still, neither the tsar nor Russia’s military and naval leaders were unduly concerned. Despite the losses suffered during the Japanese attack, the First Pacific Squadron was still a powerful force. In addition, large numbers of Russian troops were already in Manchuria, and more could be rushed to the area via the Trans-Siberian Railroad. Most seem to have been confident that it was only a matter of time before Japan was soundly defeated on land and at sea.
"The First Pacific Squadron was commanded by Admiral Oskar Starck, and even considering his initial losses, he still had a fleet of five battleships, five cruisers, and a host of destroyers and torpedo boats. The Japanese fleet, which maintained a blockade of Port Arthur, was roughly equivalent in size, but the tsar expected Starck to quickly sail out of the harbor and engage and defeat the Japanese fleet. Admiral Starck proved very reluctant to do this. While his fleet was at anchor in Port Arthur, it was protected by powerful Russian shore batteries; if it sailed out into the open ocean, it would lose this protection. Starck continually made excuses to justify his unwillingness to face the Japanese fleet.
................................................................................................
"Frustrated, the tsar replaced Starck in March with one of the most capable and charismatic of all Russian naval leaders: Vice-Admiral Stepan Makarov. Makarov was a very experienced maritime leader who was also shrewd and aggressive. From the moment of his arrival in Port Arthur, he began not just to reorganize the First Pacific Squadron but to imbue it with the fighting spirit it had lacked under its previous leader.
"In April, he was finally given to opportunity to engage parts of the Japanese fleet when a single Russian destroyer returning from patrol was attacked by Japanese destroyers. More Russian destroyers joined the action, and Makarov ordered elements of the First Pacific Squadron to leave port. Three Russian battleships (including Makarov’s flagship, the Petropavlovsk), five cruisers, and even more destroyers sailed out to take part in the action against the Japanese destroyers.
"As the early morning mist cleared, Makarov realized that he had sailed into a Japanese trap. The Japanese destroyers were supported by the whole Japanese fleet, including six battleships and six cruisers. As the first Japanese shells began to fall amongst the Russian ships, Admiral Makarov ordered the Russian fleet to return to Port Arthur. Within minutes, the Petropavlovsk hit a mine and sank, taking Admiral Makarov with it.
................................................................................................
"The loss of Admiral Makarov in the first clash between the Russian and Japanese fleets was a major blow to Russia. A new admiral named Wilgelm Vitgeft was appointed to lead the First Pacific Squadron. It soon became apparent that Vitgeft was unwilling to risk a confrontation with the Japanese fleet. Only after the tsar applied continuing pressure on the admiral did the First Pacific Squadron agree to sail out of Port Arthur once again in July 1904. After a brief and inconclusive engagement with the Japanese fleet, Vitgeft ordered a retreat to the safety of the port.
"He seemed determined to stay there, and it was only on the issue of an imperial writ by the tsar (and bizarrely, the threat of legal action against Vitgeft) that the Russian fleet sailed out once again in August. Vitgeft, on his flagship the Tsesarevich, led five Russian battleships, five cruisers, and a number of destroyers and torpedo boats in what it was hoped would be a decisive engagement with the Japanese fleet. The short battle did prove decisive, but not in the way that the tsar had hoped.
"Vitgeft was killed when a salvo of shells hit the Tsesarevich. The damaged battleship, accompanied by a number of destroyers, was able to make its way to the German-controlled port of Kiaochou, where all the Russian ships were impounded. The remainder of the Russian fleet broke up in confusion after the death of Vitgeft, and the vessels, many damaged, made their way back to the safety of Port Arthur. The warships of the First Pacific Squadron would play no further part in the war.
................................................................................................
"The complete failure of the First Pacific Squadron to take control of the seas was a major blow to the Russian war effort. While Russia could use the railroad to bring troops and supplies to Manchuria, the only way to move troops and supplies between the Japanese home islands and the battlefields in Manchuria and Korea was by sea. Before the war began, Russian strategists had presumed that Russia would quickly be able to take control of the ocean, preventing any attempt to use sea transport for Japanese forces. The abject failure of the First Pacific Squadron even to leave Port Arthur was a major setback to this strategy.
"With the sea lanes between Japan and Manchuria under Japanese control, Japan could resupply and reinforce its army units in Manchuria and Korea at will. This was an important development. The naval war was not separate from the land war but a significant factor in how it developed. Defeat in the naval war placed Russian troops on land at a notable disadvantage."
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October 24, 2022 - October 24, 2022.
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CHAPTER 5. The War on Land
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"“Again war. Again sufferings, necessary to nobody, utterly uncalled for.”
"—Leo Tolstoy"
Reminds anyone else about something very similar by Shankaraachaarya, except he said it about life?
................................................................................................
"The first engagement on land in this war took place in northern Korea, near the small town of Wiju (present-day Sinuiju in North Korea). Japanese troops were known to be advancing north, up the Korean peninsula. The Russian Imperial Commander in the Far East, General Alexei Kuropatkin, decided not to oppose this move and instead to stop the Japanese advance on the natural barrier formed by the Yalu River in northern Korea. Thus, in April 1904, the Eastern Detachment (made up of 16,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry supported by artillery) was sent to take up a defensive position on the north bank of the river. Leading these troops was Lieutenant-General Mikhail Zasulich.
"Neither Kuropatkin nor Zasulich doubted that this would be easily accomplished. Both men had a very low opinion of the capabilities of Japanese soldiers, and while it was known that the Russian defenders would be outnumbered, it was assumed that they would be able to hold their positions without difficulty. Perhaps partly because of this complacency, Zasulich made a basic error in the disposition of his troops."
Did Hiroshima and Nagasaki have something to do with a racist avenging of not only Pearl Harbor but this supposedly first defeat of 'white' race by an Asian nation?
For surely, this wasn't an absolute first? Or did West think that the Mongolian conquerors who'd swarmed not only through Russia into Europe but gone right up your France, were somehow bestowed with supernatural powers?
................................................................................................
"Common sense suggests that the bulk of the Eastern Detachment should have been kept together, ready to strike when the main force of the Japanese advance was revealed. Instead, Zasulich spread his men out over defensive positions extending for 170 miles (270 kilometers). This made it certain that, when the Japanese did attack, they would have overwhelming superiority in the area they chose to attack. Not for the last time in this war, an error by a senior commander would leave Russian troops fighting a hopeless battle."
Hindsight, there, not common sense.
"The Russians waiting on the Yalu River would face the Japanese First Army, around 40,000 men commanded by Major-General Tamemoto Kuroki. With the seizure of several important Korean ports and the Japanese domination of the sea lanes between Korea and Japan, the army was well supplied and at full strength as it moved into northern Korea in late March.
"The first Japanese troops crossed the Yalu River on temporary bridges created by their engineers in the early hours of April 27. They immediately began to engage and push back the Russian defenders. Within less than two days, the whole Japanese First Army had crossed the river and was advancing to the north. By ten o’clock in the morning of April 29, Russian forces were in full retreat. General Kuropatkin instructed Zasulich to pull back to a more easily defended position. Zasulich refused, even sending a telegram to the tsar announcing that Russian forces were on the brink of a notable victory.
................................................................................................
"By May 1, the Eastern Detachment had disintegrated. All the troops involved were dead, captured, or fleeing to the north. In total, the Eastern Detachment suffered around 2,500 casualties and lost most of its field guns. The Japanese First Army meanwhile suffered around 1,000 casualties. The Eastern Detachment had failed to hold its positions or even to seriously impede the advance of Japanese forces into Korea. Just like the naval defeats off Port Arthur, this was a stunning shock to the Russian High Command. Most had confidently assumed that Japanese soldiers would not be able to fight well and would easily be defeated by Russia’s army. The Battle of the Yalu River proved this to be a dangerous misconception.
"The first large-scale land battle of this war would take place some three months later near the city of Liaoyang. With no Russian Naval units available to oppose them, four Japanese armies had landed on the Liaodong Peninsula in early August. One was sent south, toward Port Arthur, while three were sent north, toward Liaoyang. The Russian-controlled city of Liaoyang was an important nexus on the Trans-Siberian Railroad. If it could be captured, Port Arthur would be cut off from supplies and reinforcements. Both sides realized that the battle for Liaoyang could be decisive.
................................................................................................
"The defense of Liaoyang was overseen by General Kuropatkin himself. Under his command, he had around 160,000 men in a series of three concentric rings of defensive positions around the city. Opposing him were 120,000 Japanese troops under the command of General Oyama Iwao. The Japanese attack began on August 25, 1904. For two days, Japanese infantry advanced on the Russian positions. They made little progress and suffered heavy casualties, mainly from Russian artillery and machine guns. While his superiors expected that General Kuropatkin would mount a counter-attack the following day, instead, they were shocked when he ordered his troops to withdraw from the outer ring of fortifications.
"The Japanese assault was renewed on August 30 and 31, and once again, it was beaten off with heavy casualties. However, by September 1, Japanese forces had occupied some of the low hills surrounding the city and were able to use their artillery to shell the center of Liaoyang. General Kuropatkin was finally persuaded to mount a counter-attack, but muddled and missing orders meant that this did not take place, and instead, Russian forces withdrew from more of their defensive positions. On September 3, Kuropatkin made the decision to abandon Liaoyang altogether and to withdraw his army to the city of Mukden, 40 miles (65 kilometers) to the north.
................................................................................................
"This was not the decisive battle that either side had sought, but it did highlight some important factors. On the Russian side, faulty intelligence led General Kuropatkin to consistently overestimate the size of the Japanese forces facing him; he was certain that his army was facing a much larger Japanese force. The truth was that Kuropatkin commanded the larger force. On September 3, General Kuropatkin sent a telegram to the tsar claiming that he had won a major victory by avoiding the encirclement of his army by the Japanese. The truth was that he had abandoned a major city after just four days of fighting and without mounting any substantial counter-attack. The Japanese, for their part, were stunned at the scale of casualties they had suffered in just a few days of fighting: over 23.000 men killed, wounded, or missing. Sending infantry to assault entrenched positions protected by machine guns and artillery was more costly than anyone had anticipated.
"Even before the Battle of Liaoyang had begun, the Japanese Third Army under the command of General Nogi Maresuke was advancing south toward Port Arthur. The outer defense of Port Arthur consisted of a line of hills, each with a fortified position on top. Bizarrely, on hearing of the approach of Japanese forces, the Russian commander, Major-General Anatoly Stessel, ordered the withdrawal of Russian forces from these positions into the center of the city. This allowed Japanese forces to take fortified positions on the hills and to use their artillery to bombard the city from there. With the Japanese Navy blockading the sea approaches to Port Arthur and the Japanese Army blockading the land approach, Port Arthur was effectively under siege.
................................................................................................
"The Japanese bombardment of the city began on August 7. One of the strategically most important locations in the inner defenses of the city was a hill overlooking the harbor, 203 Meter Hill. This was occupied by Russian forces, but if it could be taken by the Japanese, they would be able to use their artillery to bombard the Russian warships in the harbor. On October 29, Japanese forces mounted a large-scale assault on this hill. This was beaten back by entrenched Russian infantry supported by artillery, the guns of the warships in the harbor, and machine guns. The Japanese attackers lost almost 4,000 men killed in this attack and gained little ground. As winter approached, both sides dug in and prepared for a long siege.
"Meanwhile, in Russia, plans were already being developed for a daring mission to relieve Port Arthur and to finally establish Russian naval supremacy in the region."
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October 24, 2022 - October 24, 2022.
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CHAPTER 6. A Voyage Around the World
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"“Sacrifice the fleet if need be, but at the same time deliver a fatal blow to Japanese naval power.”
"—Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky"
................................................................................................
"In late June 1904, Tsar Nicholas presided over a conference involving senior military commanders to discuss the situation in Asia. Even at that time, the failure of the First Pacific Squadron to establish naval supremacy, or even to escape from Port Arthur, was obvious. The advance of Japanese land forces was a growing concern, and there seemed a real possibility that Port Arthur might be cut off.
"As ever, the main issue was naval power; if Russia controlled the sea lanes between Manchuria, Korea, and the Japanese home islands, Japanese land forces could be starved of supplies and reinforcements. A decision was taken for a bold rescue mission. A new Russian fleet would be created and sent to the Pacific to sweep the Japanese from the seas. There was one major problem: the only ships available for such a fleet were based in the Baltic, and reaching the seas off Korea would involve a journey of 18,000 miles (29,000 kilometers). Nevertheless, and because there did not appear to be any alternative, it was agreed that ships from the Baltic Fleet would be used to create a new Second Pacific Squadron and that these would be rushed to the Pacific as quickly as possible.
................................................................................................
"The man chosen to lead the new naval force was Rear Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky. Rozhestvensky was a seasoned naval commander who had successfully commanded Russian warships during the Russo-Turkish War. He seemed to be intelligent, ambitious, and utterly determined to succeed. However, he also had some personal qualities that made him less than an ideal choice as commander. He was unpredictable, swinging from optimism and aggression to abject depression unpredictably. He had a quick temper and a tendency to punish anything he viewed as a failure on the part of his subordinates with a punch in the face; it was even said that members of his personal staff could easily be recognized by their missing front teeth. Tact and diplomacy were not his strong points—in one official dispatch, he described one of his subordinate officers as “a sack of manure.”
"Nevertheless, Rozhestvensky was generally regarded as incorruptible and a competent gunnery officer. With few alternatives available, he was offered the position of commander of the Second Pacific Squadron. On paper, the fleet he would command looked impressive, comprising seven battleships, a number of cruisers, and a host of destroyers and torpedo boats. The reality was very different.
................................................................................................
"The four best ships in the fleet were the new Borodino Class battleships. These were powered by the latest triple-expansion steam engines, capable of propelling them at up to 18 knots. They were armed with four 12-inch guns in turrets supported by twelve additional 6-inch guns, also mounted in turrets. Each was protected by a thick belt of extra armor near the waterline. The problem was that these ships were seriously overweight. They sat so low in the water that their 6-inch guns were virtually awash and their armored belts almost completely below the waterline, where they were useless. These issues were not considered a fundamental problem because these ships were designed to operate in the relatively calm waters of the Baltic. However, in the open ocean, they would be at a serious disadvantage. Still, these were the best ships in the Second Pacific Squadron.
"The three remaining battleships were old designs intended for nothing more than coastal defense; they had never been intended to sail or fight in the open ocean. The cruiser Dimitri Donskoy had been launched in 1873 as a sailing ship and only recently upgraded with steam engines and armor. The cruiser Svetlana was little more than a sailing yacht to which guns and armor had been recently added. Of the 40 ships which were to comprise the Second Pacific Squadron, not one was a modern design capable of undertaking a trans-oceanic journey and effectively giving battle when it arrived.
................................................................................................
"Even more serious was the question of coal. Steam-powered warships require coal—lots of coal. To complete the mammoth voyage, some of the battleships would require replenishment with coal every two to three days. It was estimated that it would require half a million tons of coal for the fleet to make its way to Asia, but Russia possessed not a single coaling station on the planned route. A contract was signed with the German Hamburg-America Line, which agreed to provide a massive fleet of 60 colliers that would accompany the Second Pacific Squadron in order to keep the fleet supplied with coal. However, that meant coaling at sea, a grueling and dangerous activity in the open ocean. Each ship of the fleet would have to do this at least 60 times on the voyage from the Baltic to the Pacific.
"During July and August, Rozhestvensky took elements of his new fleet on training exercises in the Baltic. The results were not encouraging. Few of the ships could reliably hit any target, and their ability to maneuver and keep formation was abysmal. Nevertheless, the dismal news from Port Arthur and Liaoyang in August made it imperative that the new fleet sailed as soon as possible. The journey would take several months, and if there was to be any hope of defeating the Japanese fleet and easing the pressure on Russian ground forces, they must leave quickly.
................................................................................................
"On October 4, 1904, the Second Pacific Squadron left the port of Kronstadt, destination Port Arthur. During the night of October 21, having covered only the first 500 miles of its 18,000-mile journey, the fleet was sailing in the North Sea. Suddenly, one of the Russian ships announced that it was being attacked by Japanese torpedo boats. The Russian ships began shelling small ships that could barely be discerned in the darkness. Several of the Russian ships were hit by gunfire, and one reported that it was being boarded by Japanese troops.
"It was only when dawn arrived that it was realized that the Japanese torpedo boats were actually unarmed British fishing vessels. All the damage to Russian ships had been caused by friendly fire. One British trawler was sunk, six were damaged, and three British fishermen were killed and six injured. The only reason that British casualties were not heavier was the appalling inaccuracy of Russian gunfire.
................................................................................................
"Undeterred, Rozhestvensky sailed on, still claiming that he had been attacked, despite the fact that the nearest Japanese warship was more than 15,000 miles (24,000 kilometers) away. This incident caused a major diplomatic row between Russia and Britain that came close to causing a war between the two nations. Unaware of this, the Second Pacific Squadron sailed through the English Channel and then south, following the coast of Europe and then Africa."
Was Arctic coastline of Russia impossible?
"As they encountered high temperatures off the coast of southern Africa, conditions on the ships of the fleet (which had been designed for the cold waters of the Baltic) became unendurable. Temperatures in the engineering spaces of some of the ships (which lacked the ventilation needed to operate in high temperatures) exceeded 140 degrees Fahrenheit (60 degrees Celsius). Men collapsed from heat exhaustion and dehydration. Some died, especially during the hard physical work required from coaling.
"Despite these problems, the fleet continued. The situation in Manchuria had deteriorated so severely that it seemed only the arrival of the Second Pacific Fleet in Port Arthur could prevent a disastrous Russian defeat."
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October 24, 2022 - October 24, 2022.
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CHAPTER 7. The Battle of Mukden
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"“The Japanese are beating us with machine guns, but never mind: we’ll beat them with icons.”
"—General Mikhail Dragomirov"
Icons?
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"While the Second Pacific Fleet was on its way, the siege of Port Arthur continued. Both sides recognized the importance of 203 Meter Hill, and on November 26, 1904, Japanese forces mounted a major attack on this position. In a battle that prefigured the later carnage of World War I, Japanese troops failed to take entrenched Russian positions protected by barbed wire and covered by machine guns and artillery. As many as 4,000 Japanese soldiers died during the assault, and they gained little ground. The attack was renewed on November 28, but again, the Japanese suffered serious losses and gained little ground. The battle for this low hill raged for one week until, on December 5, 203 Meter Hill was finally occupied by Japanese troops. The cost had been high: in the final assault alone, the Japanese suffered more than 8,000 casualties.
"The capture of this hill was the turning point in the siege of Port Arthur. With artillery spotters on the hill, the Japanese were able to bombard the Russian warships below with massed fire from heavy 11-inch howitzers firing armor-piercing shells. Between December 5 and 9, all but one of the Russian battleships and cruisers in the harbor were sunk by Japanese artillery fire. The First Pacific Squadron effectively ceased to exist as a fighting force.
................................................................................................
"With the fleet neutralized, the Japanese artillery fire was turned on the last Russian defensive positions. On January 2, 1905, Russian forces in Port Arthur surrendered. The battle for Port Arthur cost Russian forces more than 30,000 killed, wounded, or missing and 25,000 taken prisoner. Japanese forces suffered up to 60,000 casualties, but nevertheless, by January 1905, Port Arthur was in Japanese hands. Russia’s only port in the region would not be available to the Second Pacific Squadron when it finally arrived. Leaving an occupation force to hold the port, General Nogi ordered the remnants of his army to march north, to support the Japanese armies who were preparing for an assault on the Russian stronghold in the city of Mukden.
"Following their withdrawal from the city of Liaoyang, Russian forces had moved north to take up defensive positions on the Shaho River, south of the city of Mukden. Russian forces mounted two counter-attacks, fighting two large battles in October and November at Shaho and Sandepu. Although these battles slowed the Japanese advance, neither produced a decisive victory. Japanese forces continued to move north, and it became clear to both sides that the coming battle would decide the outcome of the land war.
................................................................................................
"With the movement north of the army of General Nogi, the entire Japanese ground force in Manchuria was assembled for the attack on Mukden. Despite the onset of bitterly cold winter weather, there was pressure on Japanese forces to achieve a quick victory before the arrival of the Second Pacific Squadron. On the Russian side, General Kuropatkin had expected to receive significant reinforcement via the Trans-Siberian Railway, but events at home made this impossible.
"Growing dissatisfaction with the war and the shortages of essential supplies that it brought had been causing unrest in Russia. On Sunday, January 22, a large crowd of protestors approached the palace in St. Petersburg hoping to deliver a petition to the tsar. Instead, they were attacked by units of the Russian Army. Up to one thousand unarmed protestors were killed or injured on what became known as Bloody Sunday. This massacre caused a wave of outrage that spread across Russia, and protests and demonstrations occurred in a number of Russian cities. The tsar was no longer willing to send troops to Manchuria, believing that these were needed to maintain order in Russia itself.
................................................................................................
"Despite his lack of reinforcement, General Kuropatkin had a large force under his command, a total of over 290,000 troops. Opposing him were Japanese forces of around 270,000 men. The battle for the city of Mukden would be the largest land battle up to that point in history. It began with several coordinated Japanese attacks on February 20. In the face of entrenched Russian defenses, these made little progress and caused large numbers of Japanese casualties.
"Then, on March 7, General Kuropatkin began to transfer forces from the east of the city to the west, where General Nogi’s army was preparing for an attack. Withdrawing while in contact with the enemy is one of the most hazardous battlefield maneuvers, and parts of the Russian Army descended into chaos as they attempted to do this.
"On the following day, Kuropatkin decided to move his whole army north toward the city to take up new positions on the Hun River. This was a catastrophic error. Japanese forces pursued and harried the retreating Russians. By March 9, Japanese forces had occupied positions on the north bank of the Hun River and all but encircled the Russian troops. Thus, in the evening, General Kuropatkin gave the order for a general Russian withdrawal from Mukden. As the Russian forces fled north toward the Sino-Russian border, Japanese forces occupied the city of Mukden, the only remaining Russian-controlled city in Manchuria.
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"The battle for the city of Mukden was the first truly modern land battle involving machine guns, trenches, and artillery support. During the ten-day battle, Japanese forces expended more than 20 million rifle and machine gun rounds and a quarter of a million artillery shells. Casualties were horrendous. Japanese forces involved in the battle suffered around 90,000 men killed, wounded, or missing, while Russian losses were around 70,000. With these casualties and their massive expenditure of ammunition, the Japanese armies were exhausted and unable to pursue General Kuropatkin’s force as it retreated.
"The remnants of the Russian force reached Russian territory relatively intact, but this barely mattered. Russian forces had been ejected from Manchuria, and every major land battle to date had resulted in a victory for the Japanese. The Russian Army in Southeast Asia was a spent force and could not realistically be expected to try to retake territory in Manchuria. This outcome was shocking to the Russian High Command and a great surprise to many European nations, which had assumed that European troops would automatically win any engagement with Asian troops.
"However, though there would be no further land battles in the region, the war was not yet over. All Russian hopes of salvaging something from this war rested with the Second Pacific Squadron, which was still en route. If this fleet could inflict a major defeat on the Japanese Navy, it might at least be possible to negotiate peace terms that were not too harsh. The Japanese also recognized this, and both sides began to prepare for a single massive naval engagement."
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October 24, 2022 - October 24, 2022.
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CHAPTER 8. Failure at Tsushima
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"“Admiral Rozhdestvensky was a man of strong will, courageous and ardently devoted to his work, a skilled organizer of supplies and an economic unit, an excellent sailor, but devoid of the slightest shadow of military talent.”
"—Report of the Historical Commission of the Russian General Naval Staff, 1912"
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"By December 1904, the Second Pacific Squadron had arrived in Madagascar. Admiral Rozhestvensky had wanted to press-on toward Port Arthur as quickly as possible, but several of his ships were in poor condition and in urgent need of refit and repair. He was forced to wait until this work was complete.
"While this work was still in progress, news arrived that Port Arthur had fallen to the Japanese. It was becoming increasingly clear to the Russian High Command that the performance of this fleet against the Japanese would be a critical factor in deciding the outcome of the war. As a result, they informed Rozhestvensky that another new squadron, the Third Pacific Squadron, was being assembled in the Baltic. The admiral was ordered to wait in Madagascar until these reinforcements reached him.
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"He was not at all happy with this news. The ships being assembled in the Baltic were those that he had already rejected as being unsuitable for any battle against the Japanese. These were old ships with inadequate armaments and poor seaworthiness. The view of the Russian High Command was simple if brutal; they knew that the additional ships they were sending out could not hope to fight effectively against modern Japanese warships. But they would provide additional targets for Japanese guns, and that might help to protect the more effective warships in Rozhestvensky’s fleet.
"Still, the admiral sent an angry cable to St. Petersburg: “I have not the slightest prospect of recovering command of the sea with the force under my orders. The dispatch of reinforcements composed of untested and in some cases badly built vessels could only render the fleet more vulnerable.” Rozhestvensky’s concerns were ignored, and he was ordered to wait in Madagascar for the arrival of the Third Pacific Squadron.
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"In late April, he took his fleet to Cam Rahn Bay in French Indo-China (present-day Vietnam). On May 9, they were joined by the ships of the Third Pacific Squadron. Five days later, the Russian fleet left on the final stage of their staggering journey. In public, Rozhestvensky remained positive about the prospects of battle with the Japanese, issuing an order of the day to the fleet that noted, “Our strength is on a par with the Japanese and in point of numbers we are stronger.”
"In private, he recognized that numbers mattered little; many of the Russian warships were antiquated designs with ineffective armament, and their gunners were poorly trained and inexperienced. In any battle, he would almost certainly lose. Instead, the admiral simply hoped to take his ships to the safety of harbor in Vladivostok, avoiding contact with the Japanese fleet. There were three possible routes that the Russian fleet could take to reach Vladivostok, and Rozhestvensky chose the most direct, through the Tsushima Strait which separated the coasts of Japan and Korea. He hoped that if they steamed with all possible speed, they might be able to avoid contact with the Japanese.
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"Unfortunately, his adversary, Japanese Admiral Togo, had already guessed that Tsushima was the most likely route that the Russian fleet would follow. Japanese patrol vessels were sent to the strait, and a network of wooden observation towers was built from which a watch could be kept. Togo kept the Japanese fleet in readiness in the harbor of Masampo in Japan, ready to sail out if the Russian ships were spotted. In the early hours of May 27, the Russian fleet was spotted by a Japanese patrol vessel. Togo took the Japanese fleet out of port to take up position east of the strait. At a little before two pm in the afternoon, the two fleets spotted one another. The battle began soon after.
"What became known as the Battle of Tsushima proved to be another notable Japanese victory. By 9:30 that evening, almost every vessel of the combined Russian fleet was either sunk or had fled or surrendered. Only two Russian destroyers and one light cruiser were able to escape and reach Vladivostok. Russian casualties amounted to over 5,800 men killed, wounded, or missing. The Japanese fleet lost just three torpedo boats in the battle and suffered just 700 casualties. Admiral Rozhestvensky was captured after having been rendered unconscious when a Japanese shell hit the bridge of his flagship.
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"Soon after, the Russian island of Sakhalin was occupied by a combined amphibious operation undertaken by the Japanese Army and Navy. With no remaining significant naval forces in the area, Russia was powerless to resist this occupation. With the defeat at Tsushima and the occupation of Sakhalin, it became clear that Russia was going to lose the war. At home, the response to the defeat at Tsushima simply increased opposition to the tsar who, as overall commander of all Russian forces, was blamed for the defeat. The tsar wanted the war to be concluded as quickly as possible in order to focus on quelling growing unrest at home.
"The Japanese, too, were keen to end the war quickly. Despite their military successes, the cost of the war was proving ruinous, and by early 1905, the Japanese treasury was close to bankruptcy. When U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt offered to mediate a peace treaty, both sides were happy to agree."
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October 24, 2022 - October 24, 2022.
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CHAPTER 9. The End of the War
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"“Defeat is a common fate of a soldier and there is nothing to be ashamed of in it.”
"—Admiral Togo Heihachiro"
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"When the Russo-Japanese War began, President Roosevelt seemed to favor the Japanese, but as the war progressed and the Japanese scored victory after victory, his support turned to concern. No one had expected such an emphatic triumph by Japan on land and at sea, and the U.S. president became worried that growing Japanese power in the Pacific might present a threat to the United States."
Came true in his cousin's administration.
"In February 1905, Roosevelt had offered to mediate peace terms, which both sides refused. The Russians still hoped to hold the city of Mukden at that point and believed that the reinforcements sent from the Baltic might prove decisive in the naval war. The Japanese, for their part, hoped to achieve a decisive victory against Russian land and naval forces.
"Finally, in March, the Japanese war minister met with the American minister to Japan, Lloyd Griscom, to announce that Japan was ready to begin peace negotiations. This message was passed to the president, though the Russians, still hopeful of a major naval victory, were not interested. It was not until receiving news of the defeat at Tsushima in May that the tsar and his senior military and political leaders met and finally decided that they must seek peace terms.
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"By early June, both sides had agreed to attend American-brokered peace talks. As a venue, President Roosevelt chose the city of Portsmouth in New Hampshire. Both delegations arrived in Portsmouth on August 8, and formal negotiations began. The Japanese delegation was intent on securing the payment of indemnities by Russia, as the Japanese treasury was desperate for funds. However, although he seemed generally sympathetic to Japan, President Roosevelt quickly made it clear that he had no intention of supporting this claim.
"In other negotiations too, the Japanese delegation was disappointed with the progress. Although Japanese forces had occupied Sakhalin, they were forced to give back the northern part of the island to Russia. Russia was forced to recognize Korea as part of the Japanese sphere of influence and to give up its lease on Port Arthur, but Japan had expected that all of Southeast Asia would fall within its power. These things effectively stopped Russia’s expansion into Asia, but they failed to satisfy the Japanese. After all, Japan had comprehensively won several major naval engagements and had driven Russian ground forces out of Manchuria and Korea.
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"At home, most Japanese had expected that victory in this war would lead to all of Southeast Asia being recognized as being within the sphere of influence of the Japanese Empire and that Japan would receive hefty indemnity payments from Russia. When these things failed to happen, and the terms of the treaty negotiated at Portsmouth became known in Japan, there was widespread anger and disappointment.
"In September 1905, violent riots in Tokyo were suppressed by armed police and army personnel. Seventeen people died and many more were injured, and these protests led directly to the fall of the government of the Japanese prime minister, Katsura Taro. Despite their victory, many Japanese people were left feeling that they had been cheated of their just rewards and blamed America and President Roosevelt for thwarting their expansion in Asia."
Hence Pearl Harbor?
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"Nevertheless, the treaty was signed by both Russia and Japan on September 5 and ratified by both governments in October. The signing of this treaty and the conclusion of the war fundamentally changed the balance of power not just in Asia but in Europe too. The Japanese Empire became the dominant power in Asia and continued to grow and expand. The weaknesses in the Russian Army that the war had exposed changed the attitudes in Europe.
"Before the war, Russia had been regarded as a major power. This war underlined that, while the Russian Army might be large, it was not well led and had proved unable to stop the smaller army of Japan. The Russian Navy began the war as the third largest in the world, but the catastrophic losses of warships at Port Arthur and Tsushima left it as a second-rate navy. A massive program of shipbuilding began in Russia almost as soon as the war ended; still, it would take many years to make good the losses from this war and even longer for the Russian Navy to regain a reputation as an effective force.
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"These issues, coupled with growing internal instability within Russia, encouraged some European powers, notably the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, to consider for the first time whether they might be able to defeat Russia in a war. Indirectly, this led to the system of alliances that would precipitate World War I just nine years later.
"Meanwhile, the United States emerged from the process of helping to negotiate the Treaty of Portsmouth as, for the first time, a major force in international diplomacy. President Roosevelt was even awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906, though he personally took no part in the negotiations."
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October 24, 2022 - October 24, 2022.
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Conclusion
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"In retrospect, it is clear that the Russo-Japanese War of 1904/1905 was a watershed moment in world affairs. For the first time in modern history, an Asian nation had shown that it was capable of fighting and winning against the military forces of one of the most powerful European nations. Many Japanese, both in the armed forces and elsewhere, were left with the belief that their army and navy were unbeatable. If they could defeat Russia, then why not America or any other European country? This helped to fuel a growing nationalist and expansionist movement in Japan in the 1920s and 1930s.
"When Japan opened its war on the United States in 1941, it was a direct repeat of the surprise attack on the Russian fleet in Port Arthur in 1904. The attack on the U.S. fleet at Pearl Harbor caused much more damage than the attack in Port Arthur, but it soon became clear that Japan would not be able to repeat its victories over the Russian fleet when facing the U.S. Navy. The confidence that followed the victory in the Russo-Japanese War encouraged many Japanese to believe that they could defeat any naval power; World War II proved this to be a fallacy.
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"In military terms too, this war was pivotal. For the first time, the factors that would define warfare for much of the twentieth century were seen in action: entrenchments manned by troops using breach-loading rifles and protected by barbed wire entanglements and fixed machine guns. The resulting casualties were higher than anything seen before. The total number killed was around 150,000 with many, many more seriously wounded and succumbing to disease. Around 20,000 Chinese civilians also died during this war.
"Military observers from America and several European countries witnessed the carnage that this new form of warfare brought. Frontal attacks by infantry on entrenched positions covered by machine guns were suicidal. Cavalry, formerly a vital element of any army, could not be used in the face of such defenses. Sadly, while they may have observed, few military leaders seem to have learned.
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"When World War I began in August 1914, most commanders still thought in terms of sending waves of infantry against enemy positions. The carnage of the Western Front and the failure of either side to make appreciable progress against fixed positions were a repeat of what had been seen in the Russo-Japanese War. It would not be until the widespread development of tanks and other armored fighting vehicles in the 1930s that warfare would once again become fluid and mobile.
"The war also brought important changes in opinions and attitudes. Prior to this war, there is good evidence that many western leaders regarded the Japanese people as inferior and their military forces as ineffective compared to those of the western nations. The emphatic Japanese victory on land and at sea did begin to change that view, though many ascribed the outcome of the war to Russia’s weakness rather than particular Japanese strengths.
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"For the Russian Empire, this war was the beginning of the end. At first, the Russian people did rally behind the nation, as the tsar had hoped. But soon, as Russian defeats began to mount and the war caused shortages at home, that support drained away. Confidence in the tsar and his regime began to evaporate, and the massacre of protestors on Bloody Sunday is now seen as the first step toward the Russian Revolution of 1917.
"Wars often lead to change. Few wars lead to change as fundamental in every respect as the Russo-Japanese War."
Surely treachery by cousin Willie had more to do with both bolshevik takeover and massacre of his royal cousins' family?
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October 24, 2022 - October 24, 2022.
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Bibliography
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"Forczyk, R. (2013). Russian Battleship vs. Japanese Battleship.
"Jukes, G. (2002). The Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905.
"Politovsky, E. S. (1908). From Libau to Tsushima.
"Van der Oye, D. S. (2006). Toward the Rising Sun: Russian Ideologies of Empire and the Path to War with Japan.
"Warner, P. (2004). The Tide at Sunrise: A History of the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05."
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October 24, 2022 - October 24, 2022.
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Russo-Japanese War: A History
from Beginning to End
By Hourly History
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October 24, 2022 - October 24, 2022.
Purchased October 23, 2022.
ASIN:- B0BGHXGTP8
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https://www.goodreads.com/review/show/5063705329
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