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Julius Caesar: A Life
From Beginning to End
(Military Biographies)
by Hourly History.
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Well composed, for most part.
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One wonders, reading of this man, why he wasn't worshipped. Alexander is, after all, in all but name of a formal ceremony.
Is it because Rome was guilty of murdering him?
Is that why story of another, king of not Rome, being murdered by Rome before being worshipped, was made up?
Cleopatra is hardly mentioned, is that due to misogyny, chiefly, so women who were independent queens were abhorred and continue to be so by church?
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"He aligned himself with the powerful military general Pompey in order to ensure his military might; he also maintained his old alliance with Crassus, seeking his financial favor as well as powerful political connections. This alliance would be further sealed with General Pompey’s marriage to Caesar’s only daughter, Julia. Becoming known as the first “Triumvirate,” this political alliance would last until 54 BCE.
"With this political power structure in place, one of Caesar’s first actions as consul was to order the redistribution of lands to the poor. Although this managed to skyrocket Caesar’s popularity with the common people of Rome, it sparked animosity among many of the wealthy, land owning Senators who had the most to lose in the motion. As a result, the Senate attempted to block Caesar’s legislation, but with the help of his triumvirate and the general support of the Romans, Caesar was able to thwart their will and for the most part ignore the wishes of the Senate."
This, then, was the real cause for his assassination, no matter what pretense maintained.
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"Due to his refusal to conform to Sulla’s will Caesar, was forced to flee Rome in order to seek sanctuary in Sabine Territory in northeast Italy. Here Caesar’s fate would take a turn for the worse as he became sickened with, malaria and was forced to flee from one safe house to the next while his condition continued to deteriorate. In this desperate state, he was eventually captured by a contingent of Sulla’s troops, who he ended up bribing with 12,000 silver denarii to let him go."
That ought to read
"Due to his refusal to conform to Sulla’s will, Caesar was forced to flee Rome in order to seek sanctuary in Sabine Territory in northeast Italy. Here Caesar’s fate would take a turn for the worse, as he became sickened with malaria, and was forced to flee from one safe house to the next, while his condition continued to deteriorate. In this desperate state, he was eventually captured by a contingent of Sulla’s troops, who he ended up bribing with 12,000 silver denarii to let him go."
This author seems incapable of comprehending punctuation.
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" ... Julius Caesar was a man of many strengths; he was one of the greatest military generals of all time, but he was also a writer, and much of what we know of him and his campaigns are derived from his own direct, vivid accounts of what transpired.
"A true Renaissance man centuries before any other, Julius was well groomed to take on the role of leader and statesman that would eventually catapult him to the top of the Roman Republic. Caesar was known to be well-rounded in not only his abilities but also in his temperament. While he was capable of ruthless brutality, more often than not he was more inclined to practice mercy and clemency for his adversaries - so much so that his future would-be assassins were in fact at one time pardoned by his own hand.
"A truly adept politician, Julius had a fine command over both the sword and the pen, and he achieved just as much during his lifetime through political maneuvering as he did through the maneuvering of his military forces. When we look toward the transition between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire we can only look to Julius Caesar as the bookend firmly ensconced between these two eras.
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"The Roman Republic that Julius Caesar was born into was the only superpower left in the ancient world. Centuries before the rise of the Republic the Macedonian king Alexander the Great had carved through and subdued much of the Mediterranean, leaving the previous world empires shattered in his wake. Thanks to him, the might of Persia was smashed and much of the Middle-East and North Africa were sent hurtling into Greco-Roman orbit.
"As a consequence, not long after Alexander’s short tenure as a world leader and the demise of Ptolemy and other fleetingly brief post-Alexandrian regimes, the torch was finally passed to the Romans to consolidate and hold his gains. By 146 BCE the Roman Republic had put down all other potential claimants to Alexander’s legacy; all other contenders in the Mediterranean had been shut down and the lines of empire that had been drawn by Alexander the Great were now all Roman boundaries.
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"Much of the strength of Rome and its capability to hold onto territory once it had been acquired was largely due to the genius of its political system. With the prevention of chaotic tyranny in mind, the Roman Republic had been carefully outfitted with checks and balances on power in order to prevent their society from being overcome by the internal revolutions, civil strife, and wars of succession that had plagued so many of their neighbors.
"Unlike Alexander the Great and so many others, when a leader of the Republic died or stepped down, Roman society did not erupt in chaos; it just peacefully chose a new leader. This was quite an innovation in the ancient world. With such a strong constitution, the Romans could turn their attention toward outward expansion without any fear of internal collapse.
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"By the time of Julius Caesar’s birth on July 13th, 100 BCE, the Republic had already withstood the test of time with four centuries of stability. Julius Caesar’s family was of the aristocratic “patrician” class of Rome. He was the son of Caius Caesar who was governor of the province of Asia, and along with this claim to fame, he also had an uncle named Caius Marius who was one of the most renowned men of the Republic. Marius, a seasoned soldier who was already experienced in the ways of statecraft, was elected to the Roman Consul in 107 BCE.
"The first major crisis in Julius Caesar’s life was when his father died in 85 BCE. Collapsing and suffering from cardiac arrest after trying to put on his shoes, his death was abrupt and shocking for 16-year-old Julius. It was an event that would thrust him into the role as head of his family. Despite the hardship of sudden leadership, Julius Caesar proved to be a very self-confident young man.
"He was just as much pragmatic as he was confident, as was evident in his first major decision as an adult: his marriage to Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna. For Julius this was a political alliance on a grand scale, since his wife’s father Cinna, who had stood on the counsel from 87-84 BCE, was considered one of the most powerful men in Rome. This was just the kind of social springboard that the young Julius was hoping would propel him to his own heights of political accomplishment.
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"But these dreams of latching on to his own piece of political stability were dashed when civil war broke out between factions led by his uncle Marius and his arch rival Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Bitter and bloody, it was a disastrous conflict that threatened to tear the very fabric of the Roman Republic apart. Ironically, while all of this fighting was going on, war and the military were the last things on young Caesar’s mind.
"In fact at this point in his life he was poised to join the priesthood for the Roman god of Jupiter, a role that expressly forbid him to even be in the presence of a standing army let alone serve in the military. But after the unfortunate death and defeat of his uncle, any dreams Julius had to join the clergy were ultimately crushed since Sulla, upon his victory, decided to strip him of the priesthood.
"Julius Caesar, just 18 years old at the time, found himself on the losing end of a devastating conflict that had left both his uncle Marius and his father-in-law Cinna dead. The death of Cinna wasn’t enough for Sulla either, and he soon demanded that Julius divorce his wife Cornelia so that he could renounce all ties to Sulla’s enemies. This was a request that Julius Caesar steadfastly refused. Some say that this was done more out of a matter of stubbornness and hatred toward Sulla than for any loyalty to his wife, but at any rate, even under the threat of death he stuck by Cornelia’s side.
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"Due to his refusal to conform to Sulla’s will Caesar, was forced to flee Rome in order to seek sanctuary in Sabine Territory in northeast Italy. Here Caesar’s fate would take a turn for the worse as he became sickened with, malaria and was forced to flee from one safe house to the next while his condition continued to deteriorate. In this desperate state, he was eventually captured by a contingent of Sulla’s troops, who he ended up bribing with 12,000 silver denarii to let him go."
That ought to read
"Due to his refusal to conform to Sulla’s will, Caesar was forced to flee Rome in order to seek sanctuary in Sabine Territory in northeast Italy. Here Caesar’s fate would take a turn for the worse, as he became sickened with malaria, and was forced to flee from one safe house to the next, while his condition continued to deteriorate. In this desperate state, he was eventually captured by a contingent of Sulla’s troops, who he ended up bribing with 12,000 silver denarii to let him go."
This author seems incapable of comprehending punctuation.
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"Still a hunted man, his escape from Sulla’s wrath would turn out to be only temporary. In order to buy a more permanent freedom he would need the help of some friends in high places. It was ultimately through the intervention of his mother and other supporters of Sulla that finally convinced him to grant Julius Caesar a pardon.
"At this point Caesar was a changed man. He decided it would be much more prudent for him to leave his priestly vestments behind and instead join the military. He took a military post as far from Sulla as possible in the furthest reaches of the eastern half of the Republic in modern day Turkey. Here he would stay until he finally received word of Sulla’s death in 78 BCE.
"Upon Caesar’s return to Rome it was a city once again poised for civil war. It seemed that despite all of the advancements the Roman Republic had made in the past when it came to the right of succession, these safeguards for transition had been destroyed irreparably by Sulla’s dictatorship. Now, from the death of Sulla and beyond, finding the new heir apparent would become a very dangerous proposition, with factions bitterly fighting each other for power.
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"In the current power vacuum left behind by Sulla it was the consul Aemilius Lepidus who was waging the most vigorous campaign, raising up a large army in order to seize the Senate by force. Lepidus even reached out to Julius Caesar, seeking to have him join his side of the conflict, but this was a request that Caesar quickly denied, as he did not have faith in Lepidus’s ability to see his rebellion through to the end.
"Instead of throwing in his lot with a revolutionary army, Julius decided to try his luck with the Roman political system instead. Upon returning to Rome he sought out the Roman courts, gaining employment as an advocate in the judicial system. For the next few years Julius sought to hone his litigation and oratorical skills in the Roman system. His vocation soon led him to work directly with the Roman General Pompey, who was a former lieutenant of Sulla.
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"Pompey was often a rather polarizing figure. Immediately following the death of his benefactor, Pompey had switched sides against Sulla. Soon after Caesar struck up a relationship with the general, Pompey would become very much involved in Julius Caesar’s political and family life – especially in the aftermath of the death of Caesar’s wife in 69 BCE. Pompey offered after the hand of Pompeia, a distant relative of the general, to become Julius’ second wife.
"Interestingly this marriage would also link Julius Caesar to his old nemesis Sulla, as Pompeia was Sulla’s grandchild on her mother’s side. Like many match-making practices of the ancient, world this marriage was deemed to be more than adequate match for Caesar, giving him just the clout he needed to pursue his own course of leadership."
Again, punctuation mistake there - it should be "ancient world,".
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"Roman politics had always been a complicated proposition, and it spilled over into every aspect of the politician’s life. Whenever the opportunity came for a marriage proposal it was always used as an opportunity to make the most of possible political connections the bride could produce for her husband.
"With the development of strong political ties came Caesar’s first real political election in 63 BCE, when he ran for the post of Pontifex Maximus. His opponents were two very powerful Roman Senators who were not going to make it easy on the young politician to gain any ground. In a bitter campaign, they viciously attacked his character and accused him of being subject to bribes.
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"Despite their slander campaign, in the end Caesar managed to capture a majority of the vote - a major triumph and vindication for his ambition, since the young Julius had next to no political experience at the time. Pontifex Maximus, from which the future Catholic Church would derive its own title of “Pontiff” was a special position of leadership over the state-run religion, a centralized role that gave him plenty of leverage for future political ambition.
"This first seat in political office would then open up further doors to him, first the seat of praetor in 62 BCE and then the appointment as governor of Hispania Ulterior in southeastern Spain. Before he could leave however, the drama of his own household would pull him into a bizarre and embarrassing scandal. It all started during an annual women’s festival known as Bona Dea (Good Goddess). Only women were supposed to attend this event, but somehow a man had disguised himself as a woman and slipped into the party.
"He was eventually found out, and many of the party guests claimed they recognized him as the well-known noble Pelodious. It had already been whispered for some time that Pompey had been having an affair with Pelodious, but these were charges that Caesar had mostly brushed aside. Yet having his wife’s family so blatantly bring shame on him during what was meant to be a sacred festival was too much for Caesar, and the very next day he was ready to sign the divorce papers. So it was that Caesar left for his new post in Spain alone.
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"In a parallel with modern American political practices, it was there that Caesar sought out what could be considered one of the world’s first Super PACs when he offered his political support in exchange for financial contributions from the rich Senator Crassus. This political maneuvering had eliminated most of his debt, but some residual unpaid bills remained for Caesar in the Iberian Peninsula; in order to cancel out the rest he resorted to sheer military force to wipe the slate clean.
"After conquering the local tribes and sects in Spain he was hailed as “imperator,” the official title given to governors who are seeking the acclamation of a triumph upon their return to Rome. With such accolades following in his wake, Caesar used his newly gained prestige to push for reforms and immediately made moves toward legislation that would help him happily finish the rest of his tenure debt-free.
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"Caesar returned from Spain in the summer of 60 BCE. He was now 40 years old and eligible to hold a seat in the consulship. This was a promotion that Caesar had designs on for a long time, but since he was unable to directly campaign in person, he wrote to all of the leading Senators at the time, seeking their support. In yet another move for a marriage of political convenience, he married Calpurnia, the daughter of a popular Senator named Lucius Calpernius Piso.
"With his new marriage prerequisites met, Caesar then threw himself headlong into the onslaught of running for consul. It was yet another bitter campaign of Caesar against his rivals, but he once more prevailed. Despite his victory however, Caesar soon realized that if he wanted to advance he would have to find a way to overcome his adversaries in the Senate on a political level. It was in order to offset his foes in the Senate that the first triumvirate was born.
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"He aligned himself with the powerful military general Pompey in order to ensure his military might; he also maintained his old alliance with Crassus, seeking his financial favor as well as powerful political connections. This alliance would be further sealed with General Pompey’s marriage to Caesar’s only daughter, Julia. Becoming known as the first “Triumvirate,” this political alliance would last until 54 BCE.
"With this political power structure in place, one of Caesar’s first actions as consul was to order the redistribution of lands to the poor. Although this managed to skyrocket Caesar’s popularity with the common people of Rome, it sparked animosity among many of the wealthy, land owning Senators who had the most to lose in the motion. As a result, the Senate attempted to block Caesar’s legislation, but with the help of his triumvirate and the general support of the Romans, Caesar was able to thwart their will and for the most part ignore the wishes of the Senate."
This, then, was the real cause for his assassination, no matter what pretense maintained.
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"Many of his peers in government were outraged and conspired to have Caesar arrested, but due to Roman law, they could not touch him as long as he was in office. To further distance himself from the threat, he arranged to be appointed governor of the territory just northwest of Italy known as “Gaul.” The land of the Gauls would become his sanctuary, and as soon as Julius Caesar arrived he went about raising a private army with his own money.
"For the next eight years of his life, Caesar would be embroiled in almost perpetual warfare. From the moment he first stepped foot in Gaul until the day he died, only two years of Caesar’s life would not involve conflict. His first confrontation came against a Celtic tribe known as the Helvetii. This force of some 400,000 Helvetti fighters had been seen several times moving through the Roman province."
Doesn't that mean Greek?
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"Seeking to allay Caesar’s fears and suspicion, they quickly sent word that they were only seeking passage further west in order to get away from a group of marauding bandits they claimed were harassing them. Unfortunately for the Helvetti, these pleas fell on deaf ears; Caesar either didn’t believe their story or flat out didn’t care, and had his army block them from advancing any further.
"So the Helvetti, not wanting to turn back, were provoked to attack Caesar’s army. The Helvetii had the larger army of the two, but even though they had sheer numbers on their side, the Roman’s advantage was in their more advanced weaponry and military training. As the Helvetti charged them to break through their lines, the Romans stood their ground and let loose with a volley of javelins that wreaked havoc on the Helvetti’s first line of defense.
"While the Helvetii were still struggling to recuperate from this onslaught, Caesar ordered his men to engage in a counter-offensive charging right into their broken lines, inflicting death and destruction throughout the Helvetti army. This forced the Helvetti to flee, but their forces soon regrouped and attempted another charge. However, this advance was stopped in its tracks as Caesar’s infantry expertly cut them down. The devastated Helvetti army then once again took flight, but a determined Julius Caesar sent his men after them until they were intercepted and completely annihilated.
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"Julius Caesar didn’t have long to soak up his victory, however; after receiving word of the Helvetti’s demise, a powerful German tribal leader named Ariovistus, claiming that his army was the strongest in Gaul, challenged Julius and his men to fight. Never one to abstain from a challenge, Caesar had his men meet this new threat head on where a vicious, pitched battle ensued; in the end, Caesar was once again triumphant. His enemies fled before him.
"At this point, Caesar and his men were seasoned veterans. They controlled almost all of Gaul. Seeking even further glory, Caesar then amassed his troops by putting together an expedition for Britain in July of 56 BCE. Almost right after they stepped off the boat, Roman archers were employed to keep any hostile forces bogged down while Caesar’s men advanced. Despite the ground they gained, one thing that Caesar had not bargained for was the weather; after severe storms battered across the coast, his men were convinced that the squalls were bad omens for them.,
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"Omen or not however, Julius Caesar soon realized that for the moment, any chance of him hanging on to Britain as an extra piece of territory would have to wait due to more pressing matters at home. Despite all of his conquests and territorial expansion, by 58 BCE cracks would begin to show in Caesar’s triumvirate. Pompey especially was suspicious and jealous of all of Caesar’s impressive land grabs.
"Caesar, pragmatic as ever, sought not to stoke Pompey’s ire. Instead he sought to allay his concerns with a series of conferences and agreements that would specifically dictate Caesar’s territorial rule. Hammering out a five-year agreement for all three members of the triumvirate, it was determined that Caesar would be allotted five years in Gaul, Crassus another five years in Syria, and Pompey would rule Spain for another five years as well. Issued in 56 BCE, this temporary patchwork deal seemed to bring peace, but when the other member of the Triumvirate Crassus was killed in battle three years later in a campaign in Parthia (modern Iraq), all bets were off."
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"After the disintegration of the Triumvirate, Civil War between Caesar and Pompey became inevitable. In this conflict between these two powerhouses, Pompey had the Senate on his side; the Senators made an official edict that Julius Caesar should resign from his military command and immediately return to Rome as a private citizen. This was a proposition that Caesar roundly refused, citing the fact that such a move would only make him vulnerable to his adversaries who sought to have him arrested as soon as he stepped down from political office.
"As he stated at the time, “My position has always been of prime importance to me. It pained me to see the privilege conferred on me by the Roman people being insultingly wrested from me by my enemies.” In this fashion, Caesar maintained from the very beginning that he had been backed into a corner - and the use of force was his only natural recourse.
"The Senators’ own reaction to his refusal was swift and decisive, declaring martial law on January 7th 49 BCE, renouncing Julius Caesar as an outlaw and propping up Pompey as their new dictator. Three days later, Caesar led a legion of his men across the Rubicon River out of Gaul and into Italy, planning to take Rome by force. Caesar knew that this would be a point of no return; as they crossed the waters of the Rubicon he famously told his men: “The die is cast.”
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"It was now all or nothing for Caesar. As Pompey had official control of all of the regular Roman army, Julius was in very dangerous territory. His only chance for success would be by decisive action. He had to strike fast and catch Pompey off guard. Although Pompey was the one who was officially in charge of the armed forces of the Roman Republic, Caesar was pleasantly surprised that many of the local garrisons he encountered offered to lend their support instead of offering resistance to him.
"After his conquests in Gaul, Caesar had become a kind of cult hero to many Romans. Now the civil war of the Republic was complete - and it cut right through the hearts and minds of the Roman people. Pompey may have had the support of Senators and the legislator, but Caesar had much of the support of the average citizen. This was a shocking blow to Pompey and his associates; they had severely underestimated the sheer popularity that Caesar had cultivated among the masses.
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"When his opponents received word of Caesar’s return, they were left in a state of shock. They thought that they had called his bluff, never dreaming that he would make good on his promise to cross the Rubicon, especially in mid-January when the conditions were the least favorable to support an army in the field. Pompey and the Senate had fully expected Caesar to back down in the face of their military and political solidarity against him.
"The Senators seemed to have been under the mistaken assumption that Caesar massing his forces at the Rubicon was just a ploy to buy time and further negotiations with them; they never dreamed that he would actually cross it. Additionally, although Caesar’s opponents had openly declared their opposition against him, they had not yet quite prepared for the task of actually making good on their word.
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"They were still in the midst of preparing their defenses and gathering arms when Caesar daringly called them out on the bluff of their own, taking their calls for conflict directly to them. Caesar knew that his opponents were still unprepared and realized that the longer he waited, the longer they had to mobilize their strength. Caesar then took the initiative and rushed to meet his opponents head on, hoping to keep them on the defensive.
"On his march through Italy, the first settlement he encountered was the outpost of Ariminum. This city had already been infiltrated by his men ahead of time and it was already determined that the residents of Ariminum posed no threat and would offer no resistance. For a time Julius set up camp within the city while he dispatched a small battalion led by his commander, Marcus Antonius (better known as Mark Anthony) to occupy the neighboring city of Arretium. He sent three more small battalions to nearby Ancona, Fanum, and Pisaurum.
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"Miraculously during all of these early campaigns, not a single drop of blood was shed. Realizing the pendulum had swung decisively in his favor, Caesar sought to capitalize on this momentum and end the conflict early by offering terms to reach a peace agreement. Caesar informed his adversaries that if they truly did want peace then Pompey should meet him in person to discuss an agreement in which both of them could safely lay down their arms and disband their armies.
"Pompey responded by demanding that Caesar first remove his garrisons from the Italian territory he had occupied, return to Gaul, and disband his army. Then and only then would he agree to meet Julius Caesar in Rome to settle the matter before the Senate. This of course was no deal at all for Caesar, and he knew that the second he stepped back into Rome as a private citizen with no military behind him, he would most likely be arrested or even killed on the spot on charges of treason.
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"Not seeing anything favorable in the stark ultimatum he was given, Caesar resumed his march on Rome. For the most part, Caesar remained completely unopposed during the hundred mile trek; city after city gladly opened their gates to the legendary figure whose exploits in Gaul had captured the popular imagination.
"Pompey realized that Caesar’s advance was inevitable; with Italian Romans offering such little resistance, Pompey decided that the legions of Italy just couldn’t be trusted to mount a serious offense against Caesar. He decided to seek recruits elsewhere. Abandoning Rome completely, he fled to Greece where he hoped to bolster his army with fresh reinforcements.
"With Caesar right on his heels, efforts were again made to reach out to Pompey to request a personal meeting so they could negotiate. Pompey was unwilling to listen however, and in a mad dash managed to move the vast bulk of his troops over the Adriatic and on to Greece. Although Pompey had escaped from Caesar for the time being, this daring move had left an entire legion of his forces in Spain without a commander. While Caesar remained completely unopposed, he realized that without a proper navy it would take him some time to be able to launch a successful invasion of Greece.
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"In the meantime, Julius knew that a land invasion of Spain was easily within his grasp. He decided it would be much more prudent to take out the leaderless force in Spain before going after the exiled General Pompey himself. It was a strange situation that presented itself, and as Caesar astutely described it at the time, he was going to “fight an army without a general” and then go after a “general without an army.”
"Before he launched his assault on Pompey’s Spanish forces, Caesar sought to consolidate his gains in Italy. This meant making sure that the local political structure would be in his favor. Many magistrates and more than a few distinguished Senators had fled with Pompey, but many more of the main political body had remained behind.
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"For the most part, this same Senate that had provoked Pompey and caused much of this conflict were in a state of absolute terror, convinced that Caesar would have immediate reprisal against them and massacre them all. These fears were not unfounded, given the vengeful history of many other leaders of the ancient world, but Caesar was different; he set a precedent for clemency.
"Instead of conducting a bloody purge of his enemies, Julius declared a general amnesty and made it known that he had no intention to prosecute his political adversaries. This move was his first step in his official new policy of “Clementia,” the Latin root of the very word “Clemency.” He boldly proposed to forge “a new style of conquest, to make mercy and justice our shield.”
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"He then further elaborated on his policy to the Senator Cicero when he related to him, “You rightly surmise of me that of all things I abhor cruelty. I am not disturbed by the fact that those whom I have released are said to have left the country in order to make war against me once more. Nothing pleases me better than that I should be true to my nature and they to theirs.”
"Caesar then implored these remaining Senators to reinstate their functions just as they had before so that he could demonstrate to his enemies who had sided with Pompey that the “true republic” under his charge was still intact, and that the Roman state was still a functioning entity even without Pompey. Caesar hoped that by Rome continuing its political business as usual, he would prove to everyone involved that he was not a disruptor of the peace but the true defender and benefactor of the Republic in a legitimate struggle against Pompey’s dangerous faction that had usurped power. Once the politicians of Rome were assured that their political (as well as physical) lives would be undisturbed, Caesar left Marc Antony behind as administrator and headed to Spain with the rest of his army.
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"Pompey had six legions on the Iberian Peninsula, under the control of his commanders Marcus Petreius and Lucius Afranius. Of these two men, Petreius had the most experience under his belt, having been the commander of the army that had defeated Catiline in 63 BCE. For Pompey’s headless troops, Petreius was the closest thing to a general that they had. At first the advantage seemed to be Caesar’s, but his advance was eventually stopped at the city of Massilia. The town had been well-fortified, and the populace had already been bribed into supporting Pompey.
"Knowing that Pompey was building up his own military in Greece at that very moment, Caesar knew that he could not delay his invasion of Spain any longer; he immediately laid siege to the city. The Siege of Massilia would end up lasting for six long months, with the city’s eventual capitulation in October. After this long war of attrition, the rest of Spain would fall soon after.
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"With Spain in his grasp. Caesar left his subordinate Tribune Quintus Cassius Longinus in charge of the region and again set his sights on Pompey. The military machine of Caesar advanced with such force that it provoked Cicero, the famous writer and Senator of the time, to famously remark, “The wariness and speed of that monster are terrifying.” The main stage of the Roman civil war would be set for the Greek city of Pharsalus in 48 BCE, where Caesar’s men finally crushed the army of Pompey.
"Caesar’s men had reached the wide-open plains of Pharsalus on August 9th 48 BCE. The landscape of Pharsalus, with its vast expanse bordering a river, seemed perfectly suited for an open, pitched battle. Pompey’s army positioned themselves with their right flank situated toward the river with a small, 6,000-man cavalry flanking the other side. In total Pompey had a force of about 45,000 legionaries.
"These legions were ordered to stand their ground rather than going out to directly meet Caesar’s force in battle. While this larger force held the lines of battle in place, Pompey intended to employ his cavalry, which benefited from the wide open plain, and use them to wreak havoc on Caesar’s men. It was on this cavalry charge that Pompey had placed all of his hope, without coming up with any real contingency plan in case his horsemen failed in their assault.
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"Caesar for his part had a much smaller force of about 22,000 men, but they were composed of veteran crack troops. Caesar’s hope was that his army’s experience would win the day over Pompey’s larger army of much fresher recruits. At the outset of the conflict, Caesar had his men advance on Pompey’s army in tight formation. Once they were within 15 yards of Pompey’s front line, they loosed their javelins and started hurling these ancient Roman missiles at their opponents in full fury.
"Despite this ferocious charge, the Pompeian army continued to stay rooted to their position, unwilling to meet Caesar’s men in the field. Realizing that his men were in danger of over-extending their line, Caesar ordered them to stop. The Julian forces came to a complete halt, reformed their ranks and then, raising their swords, went in for a final charge on Pompey’s positions.
"Once Caesar’s men were busy in hand-to-hand combat with Pompey’s front line, the opposing military leader gave the order to send out his cavalry in the hope that they could make short work of Caesar’s horseless infantry. Yet Caesar’s men fought back, countering Pompey’s cavalry with expert military precision; using their long spears, they managed to knock men right off their horses, eventually causing a rout. Pompey’s cavalry was forced to scatter in humiliated retreat.
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"Caesar’s forces turned their full attention to Pompey’s front line. The whole Pompeian infantry collapsed, and with the tide of battle decisively turning in favor of Julius Caesar, Pompey’s entire army was soon in full retreat. Caesar’s men pursued, quickly overtaking the entire city of Pharsalus.
"With the city captured and Pompey’s army defeated, Caesar took the time to show his mercy by immediately issuing the order “Parce Civibus” (Spare the Citizens), making sure that the defeated city was allowed to surrender in peace. Pompey, on the other hand, sought to escape; rather than surrendering, he fled to Egypt.
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"His arrival on Egyptian shores soon led the ruling King of Egypt Ptolemy XIII into a quandary as to what he should do with the defeated general. The Egyptian government had kept up with the latest developments in the Roman civil war and they knew full well that if they harbored Pompey and protected him from Caesar, the whole force of Rome would soon be marching down on them.
"However, they also realized that if they simply let Pompey walk away he would most likely seek refuge from Ptolemy’s sister (and wife) Cleopatra VII. The siblings were currently embroiled in a bitter dynastic dispute. It was because of this perceived dilemma that the Ptolemaic government concluded that the only safe way to deal with Pompey was to have him executed.
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"In order to achieve this grisly task they used marked deception. They pretended to accept Pompey’s wish for asylum and sent envoys to him telling him as much. Yet as soon as Pompey set foot on Egyptian soil he was ambushed and struck down. Envoys of Ptolemy then promptly delivered the slain Roman’s head to Julius Caesar. For his part he feigned outrage at the act and used it as an excuse to declare martial law in Egypt. Ironically, in their efforts to circumvent the wrath of Julius Caesar, Egypt only managed to bring its full brunt down upon them.
"While in Alexandria, Caesar took up residence in the royal palace, where he began to exact increasing demands upon the Ptolemaic government. This included a call for Ptolemy to pay back his debts that he owed to Rome. Adding to all of this discord, Caesar sought to insert himself directly into the affairs of Ptolemaic politics by directly intervening in the dynastic struggle between Ptolemy and Cleopatra. Caesar proposed that both factions of the Egyptian government should seek audience with him to dictate the future terms of government in Egypt.
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"Ptolemy agreed to this arrangement, thinking that his forces could intercept Cleopatra before she arrived. Cleopatra however was aware of her brother’s plans and came up with the idea of smuggling herself directly into Caesar’s chambers. She managed to slip through her brother’s dragnet and arrived in Alexandria by small boat. She then had her servants wrap her up in a rug and carry her right inside the palace where Caesar was staying.
"Once inside, her servants unfurled the rug and Cleopatra introduced herself to a very surprised Julius Caesar. This abrupt meeting would be the beginning of a very powerful relationship as the two brokered the future of the entire Mediterranean world. After deposing Ptolemy, Caesar installed Cleopatra as the ruler of Egypt, who then married her surviving brother Ptolemy XIV, who would rule as a figurehead with Cleopatra the true power behind the throne. Caesar then soon turned his attention back to Rome and the intrigue that had been running rampant in his own courts."
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"Caesar returned to Italy in September of 48 BCE. Some twenty months had passed since the start of his Macedonian Campaign and his pursuit of Pompey. For most of 48 BCE Caesar had managed to maintain very efficient contact with his deputies and other subordinates, curiously enough however he had made no mention of Pompey’s demise. The reason for this silence on the issue could have been in order to avoid unnecessary discord and intrigue developing while he was still far from Rome.
"Caesar most likely thought that it would be best that they heard the news when he was there in person to handle the fallout of such a dramatic statement. So it was that he waited until he was back in the capital of the Republic before he put the dead general’s personal signet ring on display, officially dashing the hopes that anyone might have had that Pompey still lived.
"With his archenemy finally put away, in October of 48 BCE Caesar was declared dictator. Along with Caesar’s own title, his colleague Marc Antony was named “Master of the Horse,” which essentially could be called the position of Vice Dictator.
"The title Master of the Horse actually originates from the idea that during a battle the dictator would stay with his infantry while his second in command would be in charge of the cavalry. So it would be that Marc Antony was left as the master of Rome when Julius Caesar departed once again for a final campaign against the remaining supporters of Pompey in North Africa.
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"Concentrating the main invasion force in Sicily at the outset of this operation, Caesar’s main problem was finding adequate transport ships and supplies for his troops. Caesar was growing impatient camping out on the beach of Lilybaeum on December 17th 47 BCE when he extolled his men to pick up the pace and hurry the rest of the army back to North Africa.
"Initially Caesar had only one legion of men with him in this Sicilian city, but soon five more joined him on the island. Wasting no time, Caesar packed each unit as it arrived into the waiting transport ships. In these few ships, space was the most critical commodity that Caesar had; his men were given strict orders not to pack anything that wasn’t absolutely crucial. This left many with just about nothing but the shirt on their backs.
"While he forced his soldiers into such threadbare dire straits, Caesar was hoping that he could obtain most of the resources that they needed when they landed on the coast of North Africa. After their meager belongings were stowed away, Caesar and his men then finally set sail on December 25th, and found land three days later on December 28th 47 BCE.
"With just 3,500 legionaries and 150 cavalry, Caesar landed in the port city of Hadrumetum, once again on African soil. His first few steps weren’t easy; it is said that he lost his footing, tripped and actually fell down flat on his face, right there in front of his men. Most of his soldiers were superstitious - and normally such a misstep would be viewed as an ill omen, but Caesar managed to get everyone to laugh his folly off when he comically grabbed at the sand and cried out, “I have hold of you, Africa!”
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"Good humor aside, from all the intelligence reports that Caesar could gather he knew that he was in for a pretty good fight against the remaining Pompey loyalists. He also knew that at least ten legions were waiting to engage him in battle. Knowing he could probably use some backup before he advanced any further, he went ahead and sent his transport ships back to Sicily, ordering them to bring reinforcements as soon as possible.
"In the meantime the soldiers he already had on hand were getting awfully hungry. Caesar attempted to make good on his promise by requisitioning adequate supplies right off the soil of Africa. Unfortunately for them, the Pompey loyalists had already harvested most of the local crops. Getting desperate for supplies, Caesar went ahead and ordered for shipments to be made from other nearby provinces such as Sardinia and Corsica.
"While waiting on reinforcements and an adequate supply line to be established, Caesar decided to see if he could negotiate an easy surrender of the garrison at Hadrumentum. When they refused, Caesar simply moved on and instead established a main base at nearby Ruspina, as he had no desire to waste his resources. He then moved forward on January 1st 46 BCE to the town of Leptis which, unlike Hadrumentum, welcomed him with open arms.
"After posting a garrison at the town, Caesar took his men back to Ruspina. On January 4th during a foraging expedition enemy forces were finally spotted. In a bold move, Caesar sought to intercept this force with just a battalion of 400 cavalry and a group of 150 archers. The Pompeian force that challenged them was led by a man named Labienus, formerly one of Caesar’s loyal soldiers that had switched sides.
"In this engagement, like usual, Caesar was incredibly outnumbered. The oppositional force led by Labienus consisted of 8,000 Numidian cavalry along with a hodgepodge assortment of 1,600 additional Gaulish and Germanic professional horsemen. Yet even Caesar didn’t realize the full extent of this group’s superior numbers; when he first saw the group from a distance they were packed so closely together that he could not accurately guess their number.
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"Labienus, knowing his advantage was, not hesitant to strike. Upon engaging Caesar, he unleashed his Numidian light infantry on Caesar’s first line of defense. Their sheer overwhelming numbers served to push Caesar back. After being put more and more on the defensive, Caesar’s army was then outflanked and surrounded. It was only by using a concentrated burst of javelins that Caesar’s men were finally able to break free and withdraw to camp.
"This was a humiliating blow to Caesar and caused him to break his promise of provisioning his men proper supplies. Backed into a corner, Caesar had no choice but to retreat to Ruspina and hunker down behind its fortifications. Under this besieged condition, things quickly went from bad to worse. Some reports even claim that due to such scarcity Caesar’s soldiers were forced to feed their sick and dying horses seaweed just to keep them alive.
"Meanwhile, Caesar had no choice but to again issue orders for the provinces to supply his army with grain while they continued to wait it out. Once their supplies arrived, Caesar sent his men on the march once again, except this time instead of marching straight to Ruspina he had his men march past the city and then turn around, seizing a section of nearby hills. There they braced themselves to engage the enemy in battle.
"This provoked an immediate response from the Pompeian forces, leading to a much larger cavalry skirmish the next day in which Caesar’s men were against all odds. Julian forces broke right through the opposition’s ranks, largely destroying the enemy army. Caesar then went on to the outskirts of the nearby town of Uzitta, the location of a vital water supply for his army. Here Caesar's army fortified their positions just outside of the town while their enemies stood right across from them – the beginning of yet another standoff.
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"Forced to a stalemate with neither side moving an inch, Caesar and his already-depleted army found that their resources had all but run out. They would soon once again be without food. As their lack of proper supplies continued to weaken the army, Caesar took the initiative. He led two legions on an expedition to requisition some food for his men.
"He had heard reports that the locals tended to bury food in what amounted to primitive root cellars. In his desperation to provide sustenance for his troops, Caesar simply traveled along the coast and sought to find these buried food deposits. This was just a temporary solution however; Caesar, realizing that he would be unable to take Uzitta, decided to cut his losses and following his own kind of scorched earth policy, after setting fire to his camp, he sent his army on the move once again.
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"The enemy forces were in full pursuit of Caesar, but then something quite remarkable happened: at the last minute the opposition forces broke their lines and divided themselves. Thinking this to be a good opportunity to strike, Caesar’s men enthusiastically engaged their opponents. Completely decimating their frontline defenses in just a matter of minutes, the Julian forces managed to send them in a chaotic panic.
"The Pompeian army would pay a high price for their disorganization. At the end of the day they would face a death toll of 10,000 while Caesar’s army lost a mere fifty troops. With this stunning victory, Caesar had become the unquestioned master of North Africa."
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"Caesar once again returned to Rome in July of 46 BC. It was the month of his birth, and the month from whence the name Julius was derived, all coming together to celebrate one more triumph for the great Roman leader. No matter what qualms that the Senate may have had with Caesar, at this point they were keeping it to themselves. Despite what may have been said about him behind closed doors, as soon as he returned victorious from his African campaign they immediately nominated him for forty days of public thanksgiving.
"During this time Caesar made sure that he pulled out all of the stops, complete with massive parades, lavish banquets and incredible spectacles such as gladiator contests and beast fights. The beast fights were matches that pitted exotic animals—usually shipped from Africa—against each other. These events were always quite dramatic and in one match alone it is said that up to 400 lions were killed.
"The Romans of the ancient world, never wanting to miss a true spectacle, attended in droves. Caesar was all the more popular for the extravagant and expensive entertainment that he provided. The main theme of the festivities was conflict and war, something that Caesar had come to know quite a bit about, and an experience he wished to share with his people.
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"However, as soon as this ancient P.T. Barnum began to end the festivities, he rounded up all of his associates and committed them to the task of reining in his government. Caesar sought reform especially in corrupt and inept sectors of his administration. One of the first notable efforts he made in this regard was toward the distribution of grain to the populace; he found that this system was in fact grossly mismanaged.
"Certain allotments of grain were meant to be distributed to the poor people of Rome who would otherwise starve without it. The initiative was great ideal and a testimony to Republican goodwill, but Caesar understood that in practice the distribution of the grain was so botched that, if it wasn’t soon corrected, the whole program would be in jeopardy.
"In order to correct this situation, he embarked upon a new series of surveys and consensus in order to gauge exactly what it was that any given citizen needed in any part of the republic. The survey was conducted on a “street by street” basis; by collecting information from landlords, it was determined that the previously estimated figure of 320,000 people needing grain was completely off: the number was actually closer to 150,000.
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"In order to correct this situation, he embarked upon a new series of surveys and consensus in order to gauge exactly what it was that any given citizen needed in any part of the republic. The survey was conducted on a “street by street” basis; by collecting information from landlords, it was determined that the previously estimated figure of 320,000 people needing grain was completely off: the number was actually closer to 150,000. Along with feeding the poor, Caesar also sought to bring in as many intellectuals to the Republic as possible. He started a program of automatic citizenship for doctors or any other highly skilled professional who wished to live within the Republic. Quite possibly with the image of the library of Alexandria still fresh in his mind, Caesar wished to have buildings of learning along with people of learning. He sought the construction of his own massive library. He then sent scholars to all corners of the Republic in order to gather up all of the classic works that they could find in both Latin and Greek so that he could bring them all under this one centralized repository of learning.
"Another great effort of Caesar’s that was at least on the drawing board before his demise was the codification of Roman law. Although this would not actually be implemented for another few centuries, Caesar had drawn up the blueprints for the task. Yet the contribution of Caesar’s that would last longer than anything else would be his adjustments to the calendar: it is the Julian calendar that most of the world uses as their mainstay when it comes to counting days."
Not Gregorian?
"Prior to Caesar’s measures to reorganize the calendar, Romans numbered their days sequentially from the first to the last. Within each month they learned to count backwards from three fixed points, with the Kalends (from which we get calendar) being the 1st, the Nones being the 5th or 7th, and the Ides being the 13th or 15th. This method dated back to the use of a lunar calendar. Caesar disposed of the lunar calendar and sequential numbering in order to make for a more accurate chronicling for the passage of time. Yet even though Caesar was able to reorganize the way in which the world counted its days, his own would soon be numbered.
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"The conspiracy that sought to assassinate Julius Caesar was wide reaching and vast in scope, said to have comprised some 60 Senators in its main organization. You would think that such a vast conspiracy would have been uncovered easily, but you have to keep in mind the atmosphere of Rome at the time. The civil war had just ended, and the rise to power of Caesar was rapid; with so many events happening in such a short period of time the whole public was ablaze in rumors and conspiracy theories."
"Caesar no doubt had his suspicions, but they weren’t any more tangible than the concerns and uncertainty that plagued everyone else in the Republic every single day since the civil war began. The rumor mill was so incessant people became used to dismissing most of the warning signs of unrest as just another everyday ill of society not worth the time and energy spent worrying about.
"Despite the rampant rumors, Caesar probably made his most fatal mistake when he disbanded his bodyguard of Spanish auxiliaries. These men were fanatically loyal to him and had no ties to the conspiracies of Rome. They were the best chance of protection that Caesar had, but Julius, always wanting to reciprocate supposed overtures of goodwill, had this loyal guard disbanded after the Senate took an oath of loyalty to him and proposed a new bodyguard made of other Senators and Equestrians. Caesar thought it was only right to pay back their good intentions in kind; little did he know that he had just put himself right into the arms of his assassins.
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"The main motive for Caesar’s assassination came from the Senators who felt betrayed by Caesar’s dictatorship and saw his immediate removal as the only means of bringing back the true values of the free Republic. In the past, temporary dictatorships had been convened during times of crisis until a fully functioning Republic could be restored. However, to the chagrin of the elite Senators, in the case of Julius Caesar it became abundantly clear that he never intended to relinquish his control. For those who were desperate to restore things back to where they were before Caesar took control, having him killed seemed like the only way out.
"Along with this widespread belief however was also the personal vendetta and animosities the two principal leaders of the conspiracy had against Caesar. The two men that agitated for the death of Julius Caesar more than any others were Senators Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, better known to Shakespeareans as the diabolical Brutus and Cassius. These two men had been loyal to Pompey during the civil war and were only placed back on the Senate due to Caesar’s special push for their clemency. As it turns out, Caesar’s unusually good-natured policy to forgive and forget the past grievances of his adversaries may very well have cost him his life.
"By the Ides of March, the Senators who were desperate to restore the Republic saw one last opportunity to take Caesar down. They knew that Caesar was set to leave Rome on March 18th and most likely wouldn’t be back for a few more years; for these conspirators, it was now or never. The last good opportunity that they had to strike him down was to ambush him on March 15th when he was expected to attend a meeting at the Senate.
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"Caesar was at this point 56 years of age - far past his prime but not quite considered elderly. He could have easily lived on another ten or fifteen years, but the conspiratorial Senate saw to it that he would not. Caesar was said to have been directly warned of this fate, when a soothsayer had famously cautioned him to “Beware for the Ides of March.” His warning, that something very bad was going to happen to him sometime in the middle of that month, went unheeded.
"As the story goes, on the very day of his assassination on March 15th, Caesar crossed paths with the very same mystic who had warned him about the Ides of March on his way to that fateful meeting with the Senate. Caesar, thinking that the coast was clear and that he had managed to successfully pass through the middle of the month without any problems, happily informed him, “The Ides of March have come.” To Caesar’s quick estimation of the positive passage of events, this prophet reminded him that it wasn’t over yet, telling him, “Aye Caesar; but not gone.”
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"The mystic was right: the Ides had come but they weren’t yet gone. Shortly after this premonition of doom, Caesar was greeted by the group of Senators who wanted him dead. As soon as they saw him, they immediately started crowding around their target, conversing about many different topics at once in an effort to keep him unbalanced. One Senator in particular, Lucius Tillius Cimber, began vigorously pleading with Caesar for the clemency of his brother who was a former Pompey loyalist.
"The rest of the group closing in on Caesar also began to excitedly argue and plea for the man’s release, using dramatic gestures such as touching and kissing his hands as they continued to proposition him. While they were doing this, one among their ranks, Senator Publius Servilius Casca Longus, stepped over to stand behind Caesar. When Julius began to issue arguments denying the previously requested clemency, Publius reached out and grabbed Caesar’s toga, pulling it down over his shoulder.
"This was to be the cue for the attack. As soon as the Senators saw this, they pulled the daggers that they had hidden in their pen cases. Casca took a stab at Caesar first but missed in his nervousness, just barely nicking Caesar in the shoulder. It is said that Caesar then turned around in bewilderment and shouted, “Bloody Casca, what are you playing at?”
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"Scrambling for some sort of deterrent Caesar then reached for his own pen case but instead of pulling out a concealed dagger, out came what was within – a simple pen. He then attempted to stab Casca with it, invoking the old adage of “The pen is mightier than the sword.”
"Alas, the Senators had many more swords than Caesar had pens. A frenzy of stabbing daggers took place, all of which were aimed at Caesar. It is said that the man had 23 stab wounds as he lay crumpled on the ground, right at the feet of Pompey’s statue, bleeding to death - a supreme irony, as while Pompey couldn’t defeat Caesar in life, he lay prone and beaten before Pompey’s very image. Prophetic warning and pragmatic planning aside, Julius Caesar was unable to escape the Ides of March."
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"When you think of the startlingly dramatic history of Julius Caesar you realize that there is really no wonder that this man has managed to capture the imagination of countless generations. The raw facts of his life are like the plot to a blockbuster movie, and the tragedy he faced seemed tailor-made for one of Shakespeare’s most celebrated tragedies.
"Yet the life of Julius Caesar was not just some fantastic tale but is instead the life that he lived and breathed. Every once in a great while, someone comes into this world seemingly born with a mission; they ride the wings of fate to heights of glory, and it’s the most the rest of us can do to just take note of their ascent to the heavens."
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Table of Contents
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Introduction
The Underpinnings of a Republic
The Real Struggle Begins
When in Rome
The Ides of March
Conclusion
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REVIEW
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Introduction
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" ... Julius Caesar was a man of many strengths; he was one of the greatest military generals of all time, but he was also a writer, and much of what we know of him and his campaigns are derived from his own direct, vivid accounts of what transpired.
"A true Renaissance man centuries before any other, Julius was well groomed to take on the role of leader and statesman that would eventually catapult him to the top of the Roman Republic. Caesar was known to be well-rounded in not only his abilities but also in his temperament. While he was capable of ruthless brutality, more often than not he was more inclined to practice mercy and clemency for his adversaries - so much so that his future would-be assassins were in fact at one time pardoned by his own hand.
"A truly adept politician, Julius had a fine command over both the sword and the pen, and he achieved just as much during his lifetime through political maneuvering as he did through the maneuvering of his military forces. When we look toward the transition between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire we can only look to Julius Caesar as the bookend firmly ensconced between these two eras.
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November 25, 2022 - November 25, 2022.
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Chapter 1. The Underpinnings of a Republic
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"The Roman Republic that Julius Caesar was born into was the only superpower left in the ancient world. Centuries before the rise of the Republic the Macedonian king Alexander the Great had carved through and subdued much of the Mediterranean, leaving the previous world empires shattered in his wake. Thanks to him, the might of Persia was smashed and much of the Middle-East and North Africa were sent hurtling into Greco-Roman orbit.
"As a consequence, not long after Alexander’s short tenure as a world leader and the demise of Ptolemy and other fleetingly brief post-Alexandrian regimes, the torch was finally passed to the Romans to consolidate and hold his gains. By 146 BCE the Roman Republic had put down all other potential claimants to Alexander’s legacy; all other contenders in the Mediterranean had been shut down and the lines of empire that had been drawn by Alexander the Great were now all Roman boundaries.
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"Much of the strength of Rome and its capability to hold onto territory once it had been acquired was largely due to the genius of its political system. With the prevention of chaotic tyranny in mind, the Roman Republic had been carefully outfitted with checks and balances on power in order to prevent their society from being overcome by the internal revolutions, civil strife, and wars of succession that had plagued so many of their neighbors.
"Unlike Alexander the Great and so many others, when a leader of the Republic died or stepped down, Roman society did not erupt in chaos; it just peacefully chose a new leader. This was quite an innovation in the ancient world. With such a strong constitution, the Romans could turn their attention toward outward expansion without any fear of internal collapse.
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"By the time of Julius Caesar’s birth on July 13th, 100 BCE, the Republic had already withstood the test of time with four centuries of stability. Julius Caesar’s family was of the aristocratic “patrician” class of Rome. He was the son of Caius Caesar who was governor of the province of Asia, and along with this claim to fame, he also had an uncle named Caius Marius who was one of the most renowned men of the Republic. Marius, a seasoned soldier who was already experienced in the ways of statecraft, was elected to the Roman Consul in 107 BCE.
"The first major crisis in Julius Caesar’s life was when his father died in 85 BCE. Collapsing and suffering from cardiac arrest after trying to put on his shoes, his death was abrupt and shocking for 16-year-old Julius. It was an event that would thrust him into the role as head of his family. Despite the hardship of sudden leadership, Julius Caesar proved to be a very self-confident young man.
"He was just as much pragmatic as he was confident, as was evident in his first major decision as an adult: his marriage to Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna. For Julius this was a political alliance on a grand scale, since his wife’s father Cinna, who had stood on the counsel from 87-84 BCE, was considered one of the most powerful men in Rome. This was just the kind of social springboard that the young Julius was hoping would propel him to his own heights of political accomplishment.
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"But these dreams of latching on to his own piece of political stability were dashed when civil war broke out between factions led by his uncle Marius and his arch rival Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Bitter and bloody, it was a disastrous conflict that threatened to tear the very fabric of the Roman Republic apart. Ironically, while all of this fighting was going on, war and the military were the last things on young Caesar’s mind.
"In fact at this point in his life he was poised to join the priesthood for the Roman god of Jupiter, a role that expressly forbid him to even be in the presence of a standing army let alone serve in the military. But after the unfortunate death and defeat of his uncle, any dreams Julius had to join the clergy were ultimately crushed since Sulla, upon his victory, decided to strip him of the priesthood.
"Julius Caesar, just 18 years old at the time, found himself on the losing end of a devastating conflict that had left both his uncle Marius and his father-in-law Cinna dead. The death of Cinna wasn’t enough for Sulla either, and he soon demanded that Julius divorce his wife Cornelia so that he could renounce all ties to Sulla’s enemies. This was a request that Julius Caesar steadfastly refused. Some say that this was done more out of a matter of stubbornness and hatred toward Sulla than for any loyalty to his wife, but at any rate, even under the threat of death he stuck by Cornelia’s side.
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"Due to his refusal to conform to Sulla’s will Caesar, was forced to flee Rome in order to seek sanctuary in Sabine Territory in northeast Italy. Here Caesar’s fate would take a turn for the worse as he became sickened with, malaria and was forced to flee from one safe house to the next while his condition continued to deteriorate. In this desperate state, he was eventually captured by a contingent of Sulla’s troops, who he ended up bribing with 12,000 silver denarii to let him go."
That ought to read
"Due to his refusal to conform to Sulla’s will, Caesar was forced to flee Rome in order to seek sanctuary in Sabine Territory in northeast Italy. Here Caesar’s fate would take a turn for the worse, as he became sickened with malaria, and was forced to flee from one safe house to the next, while his condition continued to deteriorate. In this desperate state, he was eventually captured by a contingent of Sulla’s troops, who he ended up bribing with 12,000 silver denarii to let him go."
This author seems incapable of comprehending punctuation.
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"Still a hunted man, his escape from Sulla’s wrath would turn out to be only temporary. In order to buy a more permanent freedom he would need the help of some friends in high places. It was ultimately through the intervention of his mother and other supporters of Sulla that finally convinced him to grant Julius Caesar a pardon.
"At this point Caesar was a changed man. He decided it would be much more prudent for him to leave his priestly vestments behind and instead join the military. He took a military post as far from Sulla as possible in the furthest reaches of the eastern half of the Republic in modern day Turkey. Here he would stay until he finally received word of Sulla’s death in 78 BCE.
"Upon Caesar’s return to Rome it was a city once again poised for civil war. It seemed that despite all of the advancements the Roman Republic had made in the past when it came to the right of succession, these safeguards for transition had been destroyed irreparably by Sulla’s dictatorship. Now, from the death of Sulla and beyond, finding the new heir apparent would become a very dangerous proposition, with factions bitterly fighting each other for power.
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"In the current power vacuum left behind by Sulla it was the consul Aemilius Lepidus who was waging the most vigorous campaign, raising up a large army in order to seize the Senate by force. Lepidus even reached out to Julius Caesar, seeking to have him join his side of the conflict, but this was a request that Caesar quickly denied, as he did not have faith in Lepidus’s ability to see his rebellion through to the end.
"Instead of throwing in his lot with a revolutionary army, Julius decided to try his luck with the Roman political system instead. Upon returning to Rome he sought out the Roman courts, gaining employment as an advocate in the judicial system. For the next few years Julius sought to hone his litigation and oratorical skills in the Roman system. His vocation soon led him to work directly with the Roman General Pompey, who was a former lieutenant of Sulla.
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"Pompey was often a rather polarizing figure. Immediately following the death of his benefactor, Pompey had switched sides against Sulla. Soon after Caesar struck up a relationship with the general, Pompey would become very much involved in Julius Caesar’s political and family life – especially in the aftermath of the death of Caesar’s wife in 69 BCE. Pompey offered after the hand of Pompeia, a distant relative of the general, to become Julius’ second wife.
"Interestingly this marriage would also link Julius Caesar to his old nemesis Sulla, as Pompeia was Sulla’s grandchild on her mother’s side. Like many match-making practices of the ancient, world this marriage was deemed to be more than adequate match for Caesar, giving him just the clout he needed to pursue his own course of leadership."
Again, punctuation mistake there - it should be "ancient world,".
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"Roman politics had always been a complicated proposition, and it spilled over into every aspect of the politician’s life. Whenever the opportunity came for a marriage proposal it was always used as an opportunity to make the most of possible political connections the bride could produce for her husband.
"With the development of strong political ties came Caesar’s first real political election in 63 BCE, when he ran for the post of Pontifex Maximus. His opponents were two very powerful Roman Senators who were not going to make it easy on the young politician to gain any ground. In a bitter campaign, they viciously attacked his character and accused him of being subject to bribes.
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"Despite their slander campaign, in the end Caesar managed to capture a majority of the vote - a major triumph and vindication for his ambition, since the young Julius had next to no political experience at the time. Pontifex Maximus, from which the future Catholic Church would derive its own title of “Pontiff” was a special position of leadership over the state-run religion, a centralized role that gave him plenty of leverage for future political ambition.
"This first seat in political office would then open up further doors to him, first the seat of praetor in 62 BCE and then the appointment as governor of Hispania Ulterior in southeastern Spain. Before he could leave however, the drama of his own household would pull him into a bizarre and embarrassing scandal. It all started during an annual women’s festival known as Bona Dea (Good Goddess). Only women were supposed to attend this event, but somehow a man had disguised himself as a woman and slipped into the party.
"He was eventually found out, and many of the party guests claimed they recognized him as the well-known noble Pelodious. It had already been whispered for some time that Pompey had been having an affair with Pelodious, but these were charges that Caesar had mostly brushed aside. Yet having his wife’s family so blatantly bring shame on him during what was meant to be a sacred festival was too much for Caesar, and the very next day he was ready to sign the divorce papers. So it was that Caesar left for his new post in Spain alone.
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"In a parallel with modern American political practices, it was there that Caesar sought out what could be considered one of the world’s first Super PACs when he offered his political support in exchange for financial contributions from the rich Senator Crassus. This political maneuvering had eliminated most of his debt, but some residual unpaid bills remained for Caesar in the Iberian Peninsula; in order to cancel out the rest he resorted to sheer military force to wipe the slate clean.
"After conquering the local tribes and sects in Spain he was hailed as “imperator,” the official title given to governors who are seeking the acclamation of a triumph upon their return to Rome. With such accolades following in his wake, Caesar used his newly gained prestige to push for reforms and immediately made moves toward legislation that would help him happily finish the rest of his tenure debt-free.
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"Caesar returned from Spain in the summer of 60 BCE. He was now 40 years old and eligible to hold a seat in the consulship. This was a promotion that Caesar had designs on for a long time, but since he was unable to directly campaign in person, he wrote to all of the leading Senators at the time, seeking their support. In yet another move for a marriage of political convenience, he married Calpurnia, the daughter of a popular Senator named Lucius Calpernius Piso.
"With his new marriage prerequisites met, Caesar then threw himself headlong into the onslaught of running for consul. It was yet another bitter campaign of Caesar against his rivals, but he once more prevailed. Despite his victory however, Caesar soon realized that if he wanted to advance he would have to find a way to overcome his adversaries in the Senate on a political level. It was in order to offset his foes in the Senate that the first triumvirate was born.
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"He aligned himself with the powerful military general Pompey in order to ensure his military might; he also maintained his old alliance with Crassus, seeking his financial favor as well as powerful political connections. This alliance would be further sealed with General Pompey’s marriage to Caesar’s only daughter, Julia. Becoming known as the first “Triumvirate,” this political alliance would last until 54 BCE.
"With this political power structure in place, one of Caesar’s first actions as consul was to order the redistribution of lands to the poor. Although this managed to skyrocket Caesar’s popularity with the common people of Rome, it sparked animosity among many of the wealthy, land owning Senators who had the most to lose in the motion. As a result, the Senate attempted to block Caesar’s legislation, but with the help of his triumvirate and the general support of the Romans, Caesar was able to thwart their will and for the most part ignore the wishes of the Senate."
This, then, was the real cause for his assassination, no matter what pretense maintained.
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"Many of his peers in government were outraged and conspired to have Caesar arrested, but due to Roman law, they could not touch him as long as he was in office. To further distance himself from the threat, he arranged to be appointed governor of the territory just northwest of Italy known as “Gaul.” The land of the Gauls would become his sanctuary, and as soon as Julius Caesar arrived he went about raising a private army with his own money.
"For the next eight years of his life, Caesar would be embroiled in almost perpetual warfare. From the moment he first stepped foot in Gaul until the day he died, only two years of Caesar’s life would not involve conflict. His first confrontation came against a Celtic tribe known as the Helvetii. This force of some 400,000 Helvetti fighters had been seen several times moving through the Roman province."
Doesn't that mean Greek?
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"Seeking to allay Caesar’s fears and suspicion, they quickly sent word that they were only seeking passage further west in order to get away from a group of marauding bandits they claimed were harassing them. Unfortunately for the Helvetti, these pleas fell on deaf ears; Caesar either didn’t believe their story or flat out didn’t care, and had his army block them from advancing any further.
"So the Helvetti, not wanting to turn back, were provoked to attack Caesar’s army. The Helvetii had the larger army of the two, but even though they had sheer numbers on their side, the Roman’s advantage was in their more advanced weaponry and military training. As the Helvetti charged them to break through their lines, the Romans stood their ground and let loose with a volley of javelins that wreaked havoc on the Helvetti’s first line of defense.
"While the Helvetii were still struggling to recuperate from this onslaught, Caesar ordered his men to engage in a counter-offensive charging right into their broken lines, inflicting death and destruction throughout the Helvetti army. This forced the Helvetti to flee, but their forces soon regrouped and attempted another charge. However, this advance was stopped in its tracks as Caesar’s infantry expertly cut them down. The devastated Helvetti army then once again took flight, but a determined Julius Caesar sent his men after them until they were intercepted and completely annihilated.
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"Julius Caesar didn’t have long to soak up his victory, however; after receiving word of the Helvetti’s demise, a powerful German tribal leader named Ariovistus, claiming that his army was the strongest in Gaul, challenged Julius and his men to fight. Never one to abstain from a challenge, Caesar had his men meet this new threat head on where a vicious, pitched battle ensued; in the end, Caesar was once again triumphant. His enemies fled before him.
"At this point, Caesar and his men were seasoned veterans. They controlled almost all of Gaul. Seeking even further glory, Caesar then amassed his troops by putting together an expedition for Britain in July of 56 BCE. Almost right after they stepped off the boat, Roman archers were employed to keep any hostile forces bogged down while Caesar’s men advanced. Despite the ground they gained, one thing that Caesar had not bargained for was the weather; after severe storms battered across the coast, his men were convinced that the squalls were bad omens for them.,
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"Omen or not however, Julius Caesar soon realized that for the moment, any chance of him hanging on to Britain as an extra piece of territory would have to wait due to more pressing matters at home. Despite all of his conquests and territorial expansion, by 58 BCE cracks would begin to show in Caesar’s triumvirate. Pompey especially was suspicious and jealous of all of Caesar’s impressive land grabs.
"Caesar, pragmatic as ever, sought not to stoke Pompey’s ire. Instead he sought to allay his concerns with a series of conferences and agreements that would specifically dictate Caesar’s territorial rule. Hammering out a five-year agreement for all three members of the triumvirate, it was determined that Caesar would be allotted five years in Gaul, Crassus another five years in Syria, and Pompey would rule Spain for another five years as well. Issued in 56 BCE, this temporary patchwork deal seemed to bring peace, but when the other member of the Triumvirate Crassus was killed in battle three years later in a campaign in Parthia (modern Iraq), all bets were off."
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November 25, 2022 - November 25, 2022.
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Chapter 2. The Real Struggle Begins
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"After the disintegration of the Triumvirate, Civil War between Caesar and Pompey became inevitable. In this conflict between these two powerhouses, Pompey had the Senate on his side; the Senators made an official edict that Julius Caesar should resign from his military command and immediately return to Rome as a private citizen. This was a proposition that Caesar roundly refused, citing the fact that such a move would only make him vulnerable to his adversaries who sought to have him arrested as soon as he stepped down from political office.
"As he stated at the time, “My position has always been of prime importance to me. It pained me to see the privilege conferred on me by the Roman people being insultingly wrested from me by my enemies.” In this fashion, Caesar maintained from the very beginning that he had been backed into a corner - and the use of force was his only natural recourse.
"The Senators’ own reaction to his refusal was swift and decisive, declaring martial law on January 7th 49 BCE, renouncing Julius Caesar as an outlaw and propping up Pompey as their new dictator. Three days later, Caesar led a legion of his men across the Rubicon River out of Gaul and into Italy, planning to take Rome by force. Caesar knew that this would be a point of no return; as they crossed the waters of the Rubicon he famously told his men: “The die is cast.”
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"It was now all or nothing for Caesar. As Pompey had official control of all of the regular Roman army, Julius was in very dangerous territory. His only chance for success would be by decisive action. He had to strike fast and catch Pompey off guard. Although Pompey was the one who was officially in charge of the armed forces of the Roman Republic, Caesar was pleasantly surprised that many of the local garrisons he encountered offered to lend their support instead of offering resistance to him.
"After his conquests in Gaul, Caesar had become a kind of cult hero to many Romans. Now the civil war of the Republic was complete - and it cut right through the hearts and minds of the Roman people. Pompey may have had the support of Senators and the legislator, but Caesar had much of the support of the average citizen. This was a shocking blow to Pompey and his associates; they had severely underestimated the sheer popularity that Caesar had cultivated among the masses.
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"When his opponents received word of Caesar’s return, they were left in a state of shock. They thought that they had called his bluff, never dreaming that he would make good on his promise to cross the Rubicon, especially in mid-January when the conditions were the least favorable to support an army in the field. Pompey and the Senate had fully expected Caesar to back down in the face of their military and political solidarity against him.
"The Senators seemed to have been under the mistaken assumption that Caesar massing his forces at the Rubicon was just a ploy to buy time and further negotiations with them; they never dreamed that he would actually cross it. Additionally, although Caesar’s opponents had openly declared their opposition against him, they had not yet quite prepared for the task of actually making good on their word.
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"They were still in the midst of preparing their defenses and gathering arms when Caesar daringly called them out on the bluff of their own, taking their calls for conflict directly to them. Caesar knew that his opponents were still unprepared and realized that the longer he waited, the longer they had to mobilize their strength. Caesar then took the initiative and rushed to meet his opponents head on, hoping to keep them on the defensive.
"On his march through Italy, the first settlement he encountered was the outpost of Ariminum. This city had already been infiltrated by his men ahead of time and it was already determined that the residents of Ariminum posed no threat and would offer no resistance. For a time Julius set up camp within the city while he dispatched a small battalion led by his commander, Marcus Antonius (better known as Mark Anthony) to occupy the neighboring city of Arretium. He sent three more small battalions to nearby Ancona, Fanum, and Pisaurum.
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"Miraculously during all of these early campaigns, not a single drop of blood was shed. Realizing the pendulum had swung decisively in his favor, Caesar sought to capitalize on this momentum and end the conflict early by offering terms to reach a peace agreement. Caesar informed his adversaries that if they truly did want peace then Pompey should meet him in person to discuss an agreement in which both of them could safely lay down their arms and disband their armies.
"Pompey responded by demanding that Caesar first remove his garrisons from the Italian territory he had occupied, return to Gaul, and disband his army. Then and only then would he agree to meet Julius Caesar in Rome to settle the matter before the Senate. This of course was no deal at all for Caesar, and he knew that the second he stepped back into Rome as a private citizen with no military behind him, he would most likely be arrested or even killed on the spot on charges of treason.
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"Not seeing anything favorable in the stark ultimatum he was given, Caesar resumed his march on Rome. For the most part, Caesar remained completely unopposed during the hundred mile trek; city after city gladly opened their gates to the legendary figure whose exploits in Gaul had captured the popular imagination.
"Pompey realized that Caesar’s advance was inevitable; with Italian Romans offering such little resistance, Pompey decided that the legions of Italy just couldn’t be trusted to mount a serious offense against Caesar. He decided to seek recruits elsewhere. Abandoning Rome completely, he fled to Greece where he hoped to bolster his army with fresh reinforcements.
"With Caesar right on his heels, efforts were again made to reach out to Pompey to request a personal meeting so they could negotiate. Pompey was unwilling to listen however, and in a mad dash managed to move the vast bulk of his troops over the Adriatic and on to Greece. Although Pompey had escaped from Caesar for the time being, this daring move had left an entire legion of his forces in Spain without a commander. While Caesar remained completely unopposed, he realized that without a proper navy it would take him some time to be able to launch a successful invasion of Greece.
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"In the meantime, Julius knew that a land invasion of Spain was easily within his grasp. He decided it would be much more prudent to take out the leaderless force in Spain before going after the exiled General Pompey himself. It was a strange situation that presented itself, and as Caesar astutely described it at the time, he was going to “fight an army without a general” and then go after a “general without an army.”
"Before he launched his assault on Pompey’s Spanish forces, Caesar sought to consolidate his gains in Italy. This meant making sure that the local political structure would be in his favor. Many magistrates and more than a few distinguished Senators had fled with Pompey, but many more of the main political body had remained behind.
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"For the most part, this same Senate that had provoked Pompey and caused much of this conflict were in a state of absolute terror, convinced that Caesar would have immediate reprisal against them and massacre them all. These fears were not unfounded, given the vengeful history of many other leaders of the ancient world, but Caesar was different; he set a precedent for clemency.
"Instead of conducting a bloody purge of his enemies, Julius declared a general amnesty and made it known that he had no intention to prosecute his political adversaries. This move was his first step in his official new policy of “Clementia,” the Latin root of the very word “Clemency.” He boldly proposed to forge “a new style of conquest, to make mercy and justice our shield.”
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"He then further elaborated on his policy to the Senator Cicero when he related to him, “You rightly surmise of me that of all things I abhor cruelty. I am not disturbed by the fact that those whom I have released are said to have left the country in order to make war against me once more. Nothing pleases me better than that I should be true to my nature and they to theirs.”
"Caesar then implored these remaining Senators to reinstate their functions just as they had before so that he could demonstrate to his enemies who had sided with Pompey that the “true republic” under his charge was still intact, and that the Roman state was still a functioning entity even without Pompey. Caesar hoped that by Rome continuing its political business as usual, he would prove to everyone involved that he was not a disruptor of the peace but the true defender and benefactor of the Republic in a legitimate struggle against Pompey’s dangerous faction that had usurped power. Once the politicians of Rome were assured that their political (as well as physical) lives would be undisturbed, Caesar left Marc Antony behind as administrator and headed to Spain with the rest of his army.
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"Pompey had six legions on the Iberian Peninsula, under the control of his commanders Marcus Petreius and Lucius Afranius. Of these two men, Petreius had the most experience under his belt, having been the commander of the army that had defeated Catiline in 63 BCE. For Pompey’s headless troops, Petreius was the closest thing to a general that they had. At first the advantage seemed to be Caesar’s, but his advance was eventually stopped at the city of Massilia. The town had been well-fortified, and the populace had already been bribed into supporting Pompey.
"Knowing that Pompey was building up his own military in Greece at that very moment, Caesar knew that he could not delay his invasion of Spain any longer; he immediately laid siege to the city. The Siege of Massilia would end up lasting for six long months, with the city’s eventual capitulation in October. After this long war of attrition, the rest of Spain would fall soon after.
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"With Spain in his grasp. Caesar left his subordinate Tribune Quintus Cassius Longinus in charge of the region and again set his sights on Pompey. The military machine of Caesar advanced with such force that it provoked Cicero, the famous writer and Senator of the time, to famously remark, “The wariness and speed of that monster are terrifying.” The main stage of the Roman civil war would be set for the Greek city of Pharsalus in 48 BCE, where Caesar’s men finally crushed the army of Pompey.
"Caesar’s men had reached the wide-open plains of Pharsalus on August 9th 48 BCE. The landscape of Pharsalus, with its vast expanse bordering a river, seemed perfectly suited for an open, pitched battle. Pompey’s army positioned themselves with their right flank situated toward the river with a small, 6,000-man cavalry flanking the other side. In total Pompey had a force of about 45,000 legionaries.
"These legions were ordered to stand their ground rather than going out to directly meet Caesar’s force in battle. While this larger force held the lines of battle in place, Pompey intended to employ his cavalry, which benefited from the wide open plain, and use them to wreak havoc on Caesar’s men. It was on this cavalry charge that Pompey had placed all of his hope, without coming up with any real contingency plan in case his horsemen failed in their assault.
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"Caesar for his part had a much smaller force of about 22,000 men, but they were composed of veteran crack troops. Caesar’s hope was that his army’s experience would win the day over Pompey’s larger army of much fresher recruits. At the outset of the conflict, Caesar had his men advance on Pompey’s army in tight formation. Once they were within 15 yards of Pompey’s front line, they loosed their javelins and started hurling these ancient Roman missiles at their opponents in full fury.
"Despite this ferocious charge, the Pompeian army continued to stay rooted to their position, unwilling to meet Caesar’s men in the field. Realizing that his men were in danger of over-extending their line, Caesar ordered them to stop. The Julian forces came to a complete halt, reformed their ranks and then, raising their swords, went in for a final charge on Pompey’s positions.
"Once Caesar’s men were busy in hand-to-hand combat with Pompey’s front line, the opposing military leader gave the order to send out his cavalry in the hope that they could make short work of Caesar’s horseless infantry. Yet Caesar’s men fought back, countering Pompey’s cavalry with expert military precision; using their long spears, they managed to knock men right off their horses, eventually causing a rout. Pompey’s cavalry was forced to scatter in humiliated retreat.
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"Caesar’s forces turned their full attention to Pompey’s front line. The whole Pompeian infantry collapsed, and with the tide of battle decisively turning in favor of Julius Caesar, Pompey’s entire army was soon in full retreat. Caesar’s men pursued, quickly overtaking the entire city of Pharsalus.
"With the city captured and Pompey’s army defeated, Caesar took the time to show his mercy by immediately issuing the order “Parce Civibus” (Spare the Citizens), making sure that the defeated city was allowed to surrender in peace. Pompey, on the other hand, sought to escape; rather than surrendering, he fled to Egypt.
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"His arrival on Egyptian shores soon led the ruling King of Egypt Ptolemy XIII into a quandary as to what he should do with the defeated general. The Egyptian government had kept up with the latest developments in the Roman civil war and they knew full well that if they harbored Pompey and protected him from Caesar, the whole force of Rome would soon be marching down on them.
"However, they also realized that if they simply let Pompey walk away he would most likely seek refuge from Ptolemy’s sister (and wife) Cleopatra VII. The siblings were currently embroiled in a bitter dynastic dispute. It was because of this perceived dilemma that the Ptolemaic government concluded that the only safe way to deal with Pompey was to have him executed.
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"In order to achieve this grisly task they used marked deception. They pretended to accept Pompey’s wish for asylum and sent envoys to him telling him as much. Yet as soon as Pompey set foot on Egyptian soil he was ambushed and struck down. Envoys of Ptolemy then promptly delivered the slain Roman’s head to Julius Caesar. For his part he feigned outrage at the act and used it as an excuse to declare martial law in Egypt. Ironically, in their efforts to circumvent the wrath of Julius Caesar, Egypt only managed to bring its full brunt down upon them.
"While in Alexandria, Caesar took up residence in the royal palace, where he began to exact increasing demands upon the Ptolemaic government. This included a call for Ptolemy to pay back his debts that he owed to Rome. Adding to all of this discord, Caesar sought to insert himself directly into the affairs of Ptolemaic politics by directly intervening in the dynastic struggle between Ptolemy and Cleopatra. Caesar proposed that both factions of the Egyptian government should seek audience with him to dictate the future terms of government in Egypt.
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"Ptolemy agreed to this arrangement, thinking that his forces could intercept Cleopatra before she arrived. Cleopatra however was aware of her brother’s plans and came up with the idea of smuggling herself directly into Caesar’s chambers. She managed to slip through her brother’s dragnet and arrived in Alexandria by small boat. She then had her servants wrap her up in a rug and carry her right inside the palace where Caesar was staying.
"Once inside, her servants unfurled the rug and Cleopatra introduced herself to a very surprised Julius Caesar. This abrupt meeting would be the beginning of a very powerful relationship as the two brokered the future of the entire Mediterranean world. After deposing Ptolemy, Caesar installed Cleopatra as the ruler of Egypt, who then married her surviving brother Ptolemy XIV, who would rule as a figurehead with Cleopatra the true power behind the throne. Caesar then soon turned his attention back to Rome and the intrigue that had been running rampant in his own courts."
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November 25, 2022 - November 25, 2022.
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Chapter 3. When in Rome
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"Caesar returned to Italy in September of 48 BCE. Some twenty months had passed since the start of his Macedonian Campaign and his pursuit of Pompey. For most of 48 BCE Caesar had managed to maintain very efficient contact with his deputies and other subordinates, curiously enough however he had made no mention of Pompey’s demise. The reason for this silence on the issue could have been in order to avoid unnecessary discord and intrigue developing while he was still far from Rome.
"Caesar most likely thought that it would be best that they heard the news when he was there in person to handle the fallout of such a dramatic statement. So it was that he waited until he was back in the capital of the Republic before he put the dead general’s personal signet ring on display, officially dashing the hopes that anyone might have had that Pompey still lived.
"With his archenemy finally put away, in October of 48 BCE Caesar was declared dictator. Along with Caesar’s own title, his colleague Marc Antony was named “Master of the Horse,” which essentially could be called the position of Vice Dictator.
"The title Master of the Horse actually originates from the idea that during a battle the dictator would stay with his infantry while his second in command would be in charge of the cavalry. So it would be that Marc Antony was left as the master of Rome when Julius Caesar departed once again for a final campaign against the remaining supporters of Pompey in North Africa.
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"Concentrating the main invasion force in Sicily at the outset of this operation, Caesar’s main problem was finding adequate transport ships and supplies for his troops. Caesar was growing impatient camping out on the beach of Lilybaeum on December 17th 47 BCE when he extolled his men to pick up the pace and hurry the rest of the army back to North Africa.
"Initially Caesar had only one legion of men with him in this Sicilian city, but soon five more joined him on the island. Wasting no time, Caesar packed each unit as it arrived into the waiting transport ships. In these few ships, space was the most critical commodity that Caesar had; his men were given strict orders not to pack anything that wasn’t absolutely crucial. This left many with just about nothing but the shirt on their backs.
"While he forced his soldiers into such threadbare dire straits, Caesar was hoping that he could obtain most of the resources that they needed when they landed on the coast of North Africa. After their meager belongings were stowed away, Caesar and his men then finally set sail on December 25th, and found land three days later on December 28th 47 BCE.
"With just 3,500 legionaries and 150 cavalry, Caesar landed in the port city of Hadrumetum, once again on African soil. His first few steps weren’t easy; it is said that he lost his footing, tripped and actually fell down flat on his face, right there in front of his men. Most of his soldiers were superstitious - and normally such a misstep would be viewed as an ill omen, but Caesar managed to get everyone to laugh his folly off when he comically grabbed at the sand and cried out, “I have hold of you, Africa!”
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"Good humor aside, from all the intelligence reports that Caesar could gather he knew that he was in for a pretty good fight against the remaining Pompey loyalists. He also knew that at least ten legions were waiting to engage him in battle. Knowing he could probably use some backup before he advanced any further, he went ahead and sent his transport ships back to Sicily, ordering them to bring reinforcements as soon as possible.
"In the meantime the soldiers he already had on hand were getting awfully hungry. Caesar attempted to make good on his promise by requisitioning adequate supplies right off the soil of Africa. Unfortunately for them, the Pompey loyalists had already harvested most of the local crops. Getting desperate for supplies, Caesar went ahead and ordered for shipments to be made from other nearby provinces such as Sardinia and Corsica.
"While waiting on reinforcements and an adequate supply line to be established, Caesar decided to see if he could negotiate an easy surrender of the garrison at Hadrumentum. When they refused, Caesar simply moved on and instead established a main base at nearby Ruspina, as he had no desire to waste his resources. He then moved forward on January 1st 46 BCE to the town of Leptis which, unlike Hadrumentum, welcomed him with open arms.
"After posting a garrison at the town, Caesar took his men back to Ruspina. On January 4th during a foraging expedition enemy forces were finally spotted. In a bold move, Caesar sought to intercept this force with just a battalion of 400 cavalry and a group of 150 archers. The Pompeian force that challenged them was led by a man named Labienus, formerly one of Caesar’s loyal soldiers that had switched sides.
"In this engagement, like usual, Caesar was incredibly outnumbered. The oppositional force led by Labienus consisted of 8,000 Numidian cavalry along with a hodgepodge assortment of 1,600 additional Gaulish and Germanic professional horsemen. Yet even Caesar didn’t realize the full extent of this group’s superior numbers; when he first saw the group from a distance they were packed so closely together that he could not accurately guess their number.
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"Labienus, knowing his advantage was, not hesitant to strike. Upon engaging Caesar, he unleashed his Numidian light infantry on Caesar’s first line of defense. Their sheer overwhelming numbers served to push Caesar back. After being put more and more on the defensive, Caesar’s army was then outflanked and surrounded. It was only by using a concentrated burst of javelins that Caesar’s men were finally able to break free and withdraw to camp.
"This was a humiliating blow to Caesar and caused him to break his promise of provisioning his men proper supplies. Backed into a corner, Caesar had no choice but to retreat to Ruspina and hunker down behind its fortifications. Under this besieged condition, things quickly went from bad to worse. Some reports even claim that due to such scarcity Caesar’s soldiers were forced to feed their sick and dying horses seaweed just to keep them alive.
"Meanwhile, Caesar had no choice but to again issue orders for the provinces to supply his army with grain while they continued to wait it out. Once their supplies arrived, Caesar sent his men on the march once again, except this time instead of marching straight to Ruspina he had his men march past the city and then turn around, seizing a section of nearby hills. There they braced themselves to engage the enemy in battle.
"This provoked an immediate response from the Pompeian forces, leading to a much larger cavalry skirmish the next day in which Caesar’s men were against all odds. Julian forces broke right through the opposition’s ranks, largely destroying the enemy army. Caesar then went on to the outskirts of the nearby town of Uzitta, the location of a vital water supply for his army. Here Caesar's army fortified their positions just outside of the town while their enemies stood right across from them – the beginning of yet another standoff.
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"Forced to a stalemate with neither side moving an inch, Caesar and his already-depleted army found that their resources had all but run out. They would soon once again be without food. As their lack of proper supplies continued to weaken the army, Caesar took the initiative. He led two legions on an expedition to requisition some food for his men.
"He had heard reports that the locals tended to bury food in what amounted to primitive root cellars. In his desperation to provide sustenance for his troops, Caesar simply traveled along the coast and sought to find these buried food deposits. This was just a temporary solution however; Caesar, realizing that he would be unable to take Uzitta, decided to cut his losses and following his own kind of scorched earth policy, after setting fire to his camp, he sent his army on the move once again.
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"The enemy forces were in full pursuit of Caesar, but then something quite remarkable happened: at the last minute the opposition forces broke their lines and divided themselves. Thinking this to be a good opportunity to strike, Caesar’s men enthusiastically engaged their opponents. Completely decimating their frontline defenses in just a matter of minutes, the Julian forces managed to send them in a chaotic panic.
"The Pompeian army would pay a high price for their disorganization. At the end of the day they would face a death toll of 10,000 while Caesar’s army lost a mere fifty troops. With this stunning victory, Caesar had become the unquestioned master of North Africa."
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November 25, 2022 - November 25, 2022.
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Chapter 4. The Ides of March
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"Caesar once again returned to Rome in July of 46 BC. It was the month of his birth, and the month from whence the name Julius was derived, all coming together to celebrate one more triumph for the great Roman leader. No matter what qualms that the Senate may have had with Caesar, at this point they were keeping it to themselves. Despite what may have been said about him behind closed doors, as soon as he returned victorious from his African campaign they immediately nominated him for forty days of public thanksgiving.
"During this time Caesar made sure that he pulled out all of the stops, complete with massive parades, lavish banquets and incredible spectacles such as gladiator contests and beast fights. The beast fights were matches that pitted exotic animals—usually shipped from Africa—against each other. These events were always quite dramatic and in one match alone it is said that up to 400 lions were killed.
"The Romans of the ancient world, never wanting to miss a true spectacle, attended in droves. Caesar was all the more popular for the extravagant and expensive entertainment that he provided. The main theme of the festivities was conflict and war, something that Caesar had come to know quite a bit about, and an experience he wished to share with his people.
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"In creating these realistic recreations of his battles he left no stone unturned. In one instance it is said that he even went as far as to flood a lake so that it could host his recreation of a naval battle. In addition to demonstrating his military prowess in these festivities, Caesar sought to also show his goodwill to the average citizen. He began distributing 100 denarii, as well as gifts of wheat and olive oil, to whoever would receive them.
"This angered many of his soldiers who viewed this as diminishing their own hard-won rewards from battle. As a consequence, tensions between the military and Caesar’s free flowing donations would soon come to a head; riots would be the result. However, Caesar was not about to take what he felt was insubordination lying down. His response was to quickly round up these partisans and have them executed. Soon after exacting retribution on the few who dared to disrupt his festivity, order was restored. The conquering Caesar fulfilled his other great duty: that of the great showman.
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"However, as soon as this ancient P.T. Barnum began to end the festivities, he rounded up all of his associates and committed them to the task of reining in his government. Caesar sought reform especially in corrupt and inept sectors of his administration. One of the first notable efforts he made in this regard was toward the distribution of grain to the populace; he found that this system was in fact grossly mismanaged.
"Certain allotments of grain were meant to be distributed to the poor people of Rome who would otherwise starve without it. The initiative was great ideal and a testimony to Republican goodwill, but Caesar understood that in practice the distribution of the grain was so botched that, if it wasn’t soon corrected, the whole program would be in jeopardy.
"In order to correct this situation, he embarked upon a new series of surveys and consensus in order to gauge exactly what it was that any given citizen needed in any part of the republic. The survey was conducted on a “street by street” basis; by collecting information from landlords, it was determined that the previously estimated figure of 320,000 people needing grain was completely off: the number was actually closer to 150,000.
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"In order to correct this situation, he embarked upon a new series of surveys and consensus in order to gauge exactly what it was that any given citizen needed in any part of the republic. The survey was conducted on a “street by street” basis; by collecting information from landlords, it was determined that the previously estimated figure of 320,000 people needing grain was completely off: the number was actually closer to 150,000. Along with feeding the poor, Caesar also sought to bring in as many intellectuals to the Republic as possible. He started a program of automatic citizenship for doctors or any other highly skilled professional who wished to live within the Republic. Quite possibly with the image of the library of Alexandria still fresh in his mind, Caesar wished to have buildings of learning along with people of learning. He sought the construction of his own massive library. He then sent scholars to all corners of the Republic in order to gather up all of the classic works that they could find in both Latin and Greek so that he could bring them all under this one centralized repository of learning.
"Another great effort of Caesar’s that was at least on the drawing board before his demise was the codification of Roman law. Although this would not actually be implemented for another few centuries, Caesar had drawn up the blueprints for the task. Yet the contribution of Caesar’s that would last longer than anything else would be his adjustments to the calendar: it is the Julian calendar that most of the world uses as their mainstay when it comes to counting days."
Not Gregorian?
"Prior to Caesar’s measures to reorganize the calendar, Romans numbered their days sequentially from the first to the last. Within each month they learned to count backwards from three fixed points, with the Kalends (from which we get calendar) being the 1st, the Nones being the 5th or 7th, and the Ides being the 13th or 15th. This method dated back to the use of a lunar calendar. Caesar disposed of the lunar calendar and sequential numbering in order to make for a more accurate chronicling for the passage of time. Yet even though Caesar was able to reorganize the way in which the world counted its days, his own would soon be numbered.
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"The conspiracy that sought to assassinate Julius Caesar was wide reaching and vast in scope, said to have comprised some 60 Senators in its main organization. You would think that such a vast conspiracy would have been uncovered easily, but you have to keep in mind the atmosphere of Rome at the time. The civil war had just ended, and the rise to power of Caesar was rapid; with so many events happening in such a short period of time the whole public was ablaze in rumors and conspiracy theories."
"Caesar no doubt had his suspicions, but they weren’t any more tangible than the concerns and uncertainty that plagued everyone else in the Republic every single day since the civil war began. The rumor mill was so incessant people became used to dismissing most of the warning signs of unrest as just another everyday ill of society not worth the time and energy spent worrying about.
"Despite the rampant rumors, Caesar probably made his most fatal mistake when he disbanded his bodyguard of Spanish auxiliaries. These men were fanatically loyal to him and had no ties to the conspiracies of Rome. They were the best chance of protection that Caesar had, but Julius, always wanting to reciprocate supposed overtures of goodwill, had this loyal guard disbanded after the Senate took an oath of loyalty to him and proposed a new bodyguard made of other Senators and Equestrians. Caesar thought it was only right to pay back their good intentions in kind; little did he know that he had just put himself right into the arms of his assassins.
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"The main motive for Caesar’s assassination came from the Senators who felt betrayed by Caesar’s dictatorship and saw his immediate removal as the only means of bringing back the true values of the free Republic. In the past, temporary dictatorships had been convened during times of crisis until a fully functioning Republic could be restored. However, to the chagrin of the elite Senators, in the case of Julius Caesar it became abundantly clear that he never intended to relinquish his control. For those who were desperate to restore things back to where they were before Caesar took control, having him killed seemed like the only way out.
"Along with this widespread belief however was also the personal vendetta and animosities the two principal leaders of the conspiracy had against Caesar. The two men that agitated for the death of Julius Caesar more than any others were Senators Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, better known to Shakespeareans as the diabolical Brutus and Cassius. These two men had been loyal to Pompey during the civil war and were only placed back on the Senate due to Caesar’s special push for their clemency. As it turns out, Caesar’s unusually good-natured policy to forgive and forget the past grievances of his adversaries may very well have cost him his life.
"By the Ides of March, the Senators who were desperate to restore the Republic saw one last opportunity to take Caesar down. They knew that Caesar was set to leave Rome on March 18th and most likely wouldn’t be back for a few more years; for these conspirators, it was now or never. The last good opportunity that they had to strike him down was to ambush him on March 15th when he was expected to attend a meeting at the Senate.
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"Caesar was at this point 56 years of age - far past his prime but not quite considered elderly. He could have easily lived on another ten or fifteen years, but the conspiratorial Senate saw to it that he would not. Caesar was said to have been directly warned of this fate, when a soothsayer had famously cautioned him to “Beware for the Ides of March.” His warning, that something very bad was going to happen to him sometime in the middle of that month, went unheeded.
"As the story goes, on the very day of his assassination on March 15th, Caesar crossed paths with the very same mystic who had warned him about the Ides of March on his way to that fateful meeting with the Senate. Caesar, thinking that the coast was clear and that he had managed to successfully pass through the middle of the month without any problems, happily informed him, “The Ides of March have come.” To Caesar’s quick estimation of the positive passage of events, this prophet reminded him that it wasn’t over yet, telling him, “Aye Caesar; but not gone.”
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"The mystic was right: the Ides had come but they weren’t yet gone. Shortly after this premonition of doom, Caesar was greeted by the group of Senators who wanted him dead. As soon as they saw him, they immediately started crowding around their target, conversing about many different topics at once in an effort to keep him unbalanced. One Senator in particular, Lucius Tillius Cimber, began vigorously pleading with Caesar for the clemency of his brother who was a former Pompey loyalist.
"The rest of the group closing in on Caesar also began to excitedly argue and plea for the man’s release, using dramatic gestures such as touching and kissing his hands as they continued to proposition him. While they were doing this, one among their ranks, Senator Publius Servilius Casca Longus, stepped over to stand behind Caesar. When Julius began to issue arguments denying the previously requested clemency, Publius reached out and grabbed Caesar’s toga, pulling it down over his shoulder.
"This was to be the cue for the attack. As soon as the Senators saw this, they pulled the daggers that they had hidden in their pen cases. Casca took a stab at Caesar first but missed in his nervousness, just barely nicking Caesar in the shoulder. It is said that Caesar then turned around in bewilderment and shouted, “Bloody Casca, what are you playing at?”
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"Scrambling for some sort of deterrent Caesar then reached for his own pen case but instead of pulling out a concealed dagger, out came what was within – a simple pen. He then attempted to stab Casca with it, invoking the old adage of “The pen is mightier than the sword.”
"Alas, the Senators had many more swords than Caesar had pens. A frenzy of stabbing daggers took place, all of which were aimed at Caesar. It is said that the man had 23 stab wounds as he lay crumpled on the ground, right at the feet of Pompey’s statue, bleeding to death - a supreme irony, as while Pompey couldn’t defeat Caesar in life, he lay prone and beaten before Pompey’s very image. Prophetic warning and pragmatic planning aside, Julius Caesar was unable to escape the Ides of March."
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November 26, 2022 - November 26, 2022.
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Conclusion
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"When you think of the startlingly dramatic history of Julius Caesar you realize that there is really no wonder that this man has managed to capture the imagination of countless generations. The raw facts of his life are like the plot to a blockbuster movie, and the tragedy he faced seemed tailor-made for one of Shakespeare’s most celebrated tragedies.
"Yet the life of Julius Caesar was not just some fantastic tale but is instead the life that he lived and breathed. Every once in a great while, someone comes into this world seemingly born with a mission; they ride the wings of fate to heights of glory, and it’s the most the rest of us can do to just take note of their ascent to the heavens."
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November 26, 2022 - November 26, 2022.
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Julius Caesar: A Life
From Beginning to End
(Military Biographies)
by Hourly History.
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November 22, 2022
- November 25, 2022 - November 26, 2022.
Purchased November 22, 2022.
ASIN:- B01GNYM4UK
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https://www.goodreads.com/review/show/5119832044
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