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War of 1812: A History
From Beginning to End,
by Hourly History.
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As one begins reading, it's confusing, shocking, and finally, infuriating at being cheated, and seeing the hubris of a publication series now one's certain is based in US!
"The War of 1812 is a complicated war with as many as four different sides, each with its own plan for success. Pitched against each other were the United States, Canada, the Native tribes, and Great Britain."
WHAT????!!!!!
For most of us, the very mention of 1812, especially in context of a war, signifies Tchaikovsky and his 1812, written honouring and welcoming Napoleon's advent into Moscow.
"The Year 1812, Solemn Overture, Op. 49, popularly known as the 1812 Overture, is a concert overture in E♭ major written in 1880 by Russian composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky to commemorate the successful Russian defense against Napoleon I's invading Grande Armée in 1812. Wikipedia"
And to those of us literate, having lived for better part of a decade during vital years does not change that association, but on the contrary, gets affirmed if not formed in the first place.
"The Americans objected to the British blockade of trade with France and the continent. When the Royal Navy began boarding American ships to search out sailors suspected of being British citizens, the Americans tried both political and physical means to assert their neutrality on the seas. War Hawk politicians in the United States, on the other hand, started eyeing the taking of Canadian territory as a suitable retribution against British aggression. Canada, though still a British colony, found itself fighting for independence against the Americans. Native Americans, unhappy with recent treaties and forced movements westward, sought a solution and a homeland in the turmoil. Many tribes joined under Shawnee Chief Tecumseh in alliance with the British in an effort to gain political power against the Americans and secure sovereign territory for themselves in the interior of America. Through it all, Britain fought to hold on to its interests in North America."
As proud as US is of her earlier migrants having cheated, robbed and massacred the natives - hence the paki friendship? - since this bunch of skirmishes went on for at least half a decade, wouldn't it be less cheating to call it, say, Early Nineteenth Century War Between Four Across The Pond, instead of stealing the title 1812 from a dead maestro venerated in world of music, not to mention from Napoleon with his conquest of Europe and arrival in Moscow?
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"“The acquisition of Canada this year, as far as the neighborhood of Quebec, will be a mere matter of marching, and will give us experience for the attack of Halifax the next, and the final expulsion of England from the American continent.”
"—Thomas Jefferson"
As despicable as Hitler’s policy and actions were a half a century later, he was merely emulating this!
Hitler wasn't that different, then! On the contrary - in occupying Europe and getting rid of non-German populations (by various means including extermination) thereof only half a century later, he was merely emulating the earlier US policy of expansion for his own, of acquiring a "lebensraum" for Germans!
And for all that, Thomas Jefferson isn't even criticised in UK, US or Europe, while Germans are and quite definitely so, for merely copying UK and US.
Mere racism there?
Doing in Europe to European populations, exactly as was bring done to rest of the world, from India to Africa to Alaska to Ushuaia to Hawaii to Indonesia, was a no-no, because only of race?
As despicable as Hitler’s policy and actions were a half a century later, he was merely emulating a not so much earlier US!
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"After the Revolution, the United States sold all its warships, but in 1794, six frigates were built to fight against privateers from the Barbary State of North Africa. ... "
Author fails to explain why.
Why were US in need of warring against "Barbary State of North Africa"? They weren't in the way of US expansion across continent, and US wasn't colonising any part of Africa.
So. Why were US in need of warring against "Barbary State of North Africa"? Author isn't saying.
Why? Paid by oil money?
Reality is about "privateers from the Barbary State of North Africa" being busy kidnapping European women, and generally women of European descent, from ships plying across Atlantic, especially those travelling from Mediterranean ports, for purposes of breeding, in an effort to whitewash the progeny.
Hence the germination of US navy.
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" ... James Madison had hoped to bring the war to an early end. From U.S. Ambassador to Russia, John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams, Madison received the message that the tsar might act as a mediator between the United States and Great Britain. Madison was happy to accept the proposition and sent Albert Gallatin and James Bayard to join Adams as potential commissioners for that purpose in St. Petersburg. However, in September 1812, England was not at all interested in mediation.
"America had planned a four-pronged attack on Canada. As it happened, two of the attacks failed, and two were not launched. ... "
They forget these little details when mentioning the US-Canadian border as the most peaceful international border.
"The 1812 Canadian campaign was a failure for the Americans, but the loss of General Brock was nevertheless a major blow to the British. ... The American fort had been evacuated by its garrison after a bombardment from British batteries the afternoon of the battle and could have been taken."
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"“You, too, will be driven away from your native land and ancient domains as leaves are driven before the wintry storms. Sleep not longer, O Choctaws and Chickasaws, in false security and delusive hopes. Our broad domains are fast escaping from our grasp.”
"—Tecumseh, Shawnee chief"
The title Gone With The Wind with its heartbreaking inherent meaning and connotations fits them far more.
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" ... For two days after the burning of Washington, hurricane-force storms impeded the armies and all travelers as they both headed toward Maryland. Madison, having first attempted for Maryland, heard that the British had left Washington and therefore summoned his cabinet on August 27 to join him in D.C. Mrs. Madison also returned and went to live in the home of her sister and brother-in-law until she could arrange a house for her and the president."
" ... The British believed that Baltimore was the seat for many of the American privateers, and therefore, an assault on Baltimore was the next objective. The assault by land would approach under Ross’s command via North Point while the naval attack under Cochrane aimed for Fort McHenry."
" ... Witnessing the overnight bombardment of Fort McHenry, which lasted 25 hours, Francis Scott Key was moved to write the words that would become the lyrics for the American national anthem."
" ... With these battles, Britain and the United States were ready to begin discussing a treaty of peace at Ghent, Belgium."
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" ... Napoleon escaped from his prison on Elba on February 26, 1815, and Britain had no more time for North America. In fact, Britain was very annoyed with the United States. For years Britain had been fighting the major threat of Napoleon while Madison and their old colonies had been such a nuisance. Britain never expended more than seven percent of its military effort in the American war and afterward barely seemed to acknowledge that it happened. Their only real goal had been to keep Canada intact. Success achieved.
"The Canadians were relieved that they were still a separate colony with their own identity. If anything, the war had given them an identity. Canadian communities had been burned and looted by American troops during the war, and although time healed all wounds, Canadians felt they had successfully stood their ground against their southern neighbor. It was also a benefit that the Canadian economy had gained a wartime boost. Life was good.
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"The United States was still a new nation sometimes unsure how to proceed with acts of governance. In 1810, the Twelfth Congress had been elected and was seated the following March in accordance with the schedule in the Constitution. The Democratic-Republican Party, also the party of President James Madison who was elected to a four-year term in 1808, held the majority in both the House and the Senate.
"Despite President Washington’s warning against the formation of political parties, America quickly became a two-party nation. The Federalist Party, promoting centralizing policies, was run by Alexander Hamilton while the Democratic-Republican Party, organized by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison (but not related to either of the two modern parties known by the same names), opposed strong centralization and supported states’ rights even to the extent of allowing states to nullify a federal law."
Which didn't help union in 1861.
"The 1810 national census revealed the United States to be a fast-growing nation. The increase in population over the preceding decade was 36.4 percent. The actual population total was 7,239,881, mostly in the north where the four largest cities—New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston—were located. Seventeen states were now in the union, up from the original thirteen, and new territories were forming westward.
"James Madison had the challenge or misfortune to become president in a time of political crisis. Declared by future generations both a Founding Father and the Father of the Constitution for his work in drafting the document, his achievements in office have generally been judged as above average in recent surveys of political historians. This judgment is reflected by his decisions and actions during the years leading up to and during the conflict of the War of 1812."
War of 1805-1814 would be far more accurate.
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"History books rarely note that the 1803 Louisiana Purchase had disturbing consequences for Native American tribes. Until Napoleon quietly ceded the massive tracts of the Louisiana Purchase west of the Mississippi to the United States, native tribes did not expect to be pushed continually westward. Immediately after the Louisiana Purchase was made, the American government increased negotiations for more white settlement on remaining Indian lands east of the Mississippi."
"Negotiations"?????
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"One region that was particularly strategic for trade routes and river traffic was the portion of the Mississippi River Valley from Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, south to East St. Louis, Illinois. The first governor of the Indiana Territory, which included the present state of Illinois, was the future president, William Henry Harrison. Taking advantage of sudden unrest between the Sauk and some settlers due to an argument ending in a settler homicide, Harrison demanded that the Sauk meet with him and bring the accused. Five Sauk warriors came, apparently expecting that they were going to negotiate traditional compensation for the relatives of the killed man, “to cover the blood” in their words, as was done among the tribes. In no way did these five men have authority to negotiate land sales, and Harrison knew that well. The man who was the killer was not released but, to the others’ dismay, executed for murder that day. The warrior Black Hawk later wrote in his autobiography that the Sauk men did not understand the document they had signed on November 3, 1804. Its official name is Ratified Indian Treaty #43, sometimes called the Treaty of St. Louis. Harrison and the government insisted the treaty gave to the United States all Sauk and Fox rights to lands extending over large parts of Wisconsin, Illinois, and Missouri."
Funny, do they teach their children that cheating is all right as long as you kill the ones you cheat?
"Dealings with Native Americans to the west were not going well for all concerned. To the east, on the ocean and in Europe, continuing wars disrupted trade. The United States wanted to be treated as neutral by England and France, but there were maritime blockades and restrictions to consider.
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"In July 1805, the British Admiralty Court ruled that the Royal Navy had been correct to seize the U.S. merchant ship Essex on its way from Massachusetts to Cuba. The Essex, which began its voyage from Spain, had violated the Rule of 1756 stating that trade normally not occurring between certain partners in peacetime was likewise not allowed to occur in wartime. Specifically, Britain was at war with France and was preventing French and Spanish ships from making contact with their American colonies. American merchants, such as those operating the Essex, were forbidden to take goods from Barcelona to Salem, Massachusetts, and then onto Havana for profit and still claim neutral status at sea. The stop at an American port was primarily for the appearance of legality. Since American merchants did not normally run this trade to and from the foreign colonies in peacetime, they could not do it when a British war blockade was in effect. After the Essex Decision, many American merchant ships were seized, and although the ships and some crew might eventually be released, the Americans responded with anger.
"This was the beginning of a series of measures and countermeasures between the British and Americans that escalated into war. In 1806, still under the second administration of Thomas Jefferson, Congress enacted the Non-Importation Act. In response to the Essex Decision and the ongoing impressment of American sailors, Congress and Jefferson sought an economic means to assert American sovereignty. A number of items formerly traded between Britain and America were now banned. A brief list includes: all articles made chiefly of leather, silk, hemp, flax, tin, or brass; expensive woolen clothes and hosiery; window glass and glassware; silver and plated goods, nails and spikes; hats; beer, ale, and porter; and pictures and prints. Penalties were severe.
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"The Non-Importation Act failed for several reasons: American merchants complained loudly about lost profits; other countries quickly took over as middlemen for banned products; and the provisions of the bill were poorly written and difficult to enforce. Rather than amend the bill, Jefferson suspended it for long periods until it was replaced by the Embargo Act.
"The Monroe-Pinkney Treaty of 1806 was another failed effort that led to escalating conflict. James Monroe and William Pinkney on behalf of Thomas Jefferson negotiated with Lords Holland and Auckland representing Lord Grenville in an attempt to renew the Jay Treaty of 1794. Jefferson’s chief concerns were the continuing impressment of sailors from American ships and America’s claims to neutral shipping rights. An estimated 6,000 Americans were impressed onto British ships in the years leading up to the war. The policy of impressment of alleged British deserters was important to the British because their ships suffered from a manpower shortage. The final treaty offered neither neutrality nor a cessation of impressment. Jefferson refused to sign it when he examined it in March 1807.
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"The same year also brought a serious physical confrontation between British and American warships, the H.M.S. Leopard and the U.S.S. Chesapeake. At this time, American, French, and British warships were all present in the Chesapeake Bay. British deserters took the opportunity to sneak over to several of the U.S. Navy ships. The British complained without result. On June 22, as the Chesapeake was leaving, the Leopard’s command demanded to examine a muster of the American crew. Although his ship was not ready to fight, the American Commodore Barron refused. A quick exchange of fire led to four deaths, seventeen injuries, and Barron’s surrender of the ship. The British boarded, impressed four foreign sailors (two were ultimately returned as mistaken identifications), and returned the ship and crew to Barron. The United States Navy suspended Barron from service for five years. This incident caused the War Hawks in Congress to clamor for war, but Jefferson postponed action until passions had cooled.
"Britain meanwhile passed Orders in Council forbidding French trade with Britain, its allies, and neutrals. Napoleon answered with the Berlin and Milan Decrees asserting that neutral shipping using British ports or paying British tariffs would be regarded as British and seized. With the failure of the Non-Importation Act the previous year, the Americans replaced it with the Embargo Act, but it suffered the same problems of enforcement while stirring up more domestic protests against the government in Washington and its handling of impressment, captures, and seizures. All these actions occurred in 1807.
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"The news from the west became more distressing. James Madison won the election of 1808, becoming president in March 1809. Fighting escalated in the Indiana Territory under Governor William Henry Harrison. His primary opposition, it was increasingly perceived, was the Shawnee Chief Tecumseh, born 1768 in Ohio, who had joined with his brother Laulewasikau, also known as the Prophet Tenskwatawa, both calling for a return to traditional cultural values and rejection of white influences. Tecumseh envisioned a large Indian confederacy preserving native lands and cultures while holding back white encroachment. He attracted many followers among the younger braves of numerous tribes, but the older leaders seemed to fear for the disruption of authority while Harrison and local white settlers felt threatened."
And he had to pay with his life if they "felt threatened", despite their selves being the aggressors robbing natives of land and life!
"Harrison’s aggressive treaty practices and documented tendencies to offer temporary support to someone, or some group, particularly when he needed cooperation from them, would become a focus of conflict in his future interactions with Tecumseh. Harrison’s driving objective was the acquisition of land for the United States. With the 1809 Treaty of Fort Wayne, he is said to have worked through the tribes involved, beginning with the agreeable Potawatomie who convinced the unwilling Miami to sign. Harrison and the Miami then offered the Wea, who were absent at the first negotiations, a subsidy to sign. Finally, Harrison promised the Wea an additional subsidy if they could also get the Kickapoo to sign. The treaty was finalized in the spring of 1810, ceding over 3,000,000 acres of Indian land to American settlers."
Did they know it amounted to their own permanent ouster from their land?
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"Tecumseh was outraged. He proclaimed that Indian lands belonged to all tribes, and no lands could be sold without the consent of all. Tecumseh now set out intentionally to convince all tribes of this policy and of the necessity for a great Indian confederacy.
"Tecumseh was elsewhere in 1811 garnering support when Harrison made a sudden attack with an army of 1,100 soldiers on Tecumseh’s settlement, Prophet’s Town. The town was burned, and more critically, the food supply was destroyed. Laulewasikau responded but was defeated in battle—according to original accounts. In more modern assessments, Harrison’s forces took a beating, and the result was more of a draw. Harrison had twice as many men as Laulewasikau and suffered 200 casualties of whom 60 died. Tecumseh’s people lost 50 warriors with perhaps 80 wounded. Unfortunately, Laulewasikau had promised his warriors that the white men’s bullets would not hurt them. When this failed to be true, he and Tecumseh lost credibility. The confrontation on November 7 became known to Americans as the Battle of Tippecanoe. Harrison made the tale of the battle into his greatest victory and the core of his later presidential campaign."
So Harrison was a liar.
"The battle turned the tribes against the idea of a confederacy, and support for Tecumseh’s plan dispersed. White settlers in the Indiana Territory became much more confident of their safety. Tecumseh needed another plan."
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"“Poor is his triumph, and disgrac’d his name, Who draws the sword for empire, wealth, or fame.”
"—A New England Farmer [John Lowell, Jr.]"
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"British provincial forces traditionally had kept an open relationship with native peoples in America, and this policy was about to be put to the test. The British Governor in Canada, Lieutenant-General Sir George Prévost, hearing the murmurs of war on all sides and noting the setback of Tecumseh’s alliance at Tippecanoe, proposed to discuss an alliance with Tecumseh and his warriors. Prévost saw Tecumseh’s followers as useful allies in the coming defense of Canada against the Americans. In fact, the British had been giving arms and ammunition quietly to the natives since about 1807. With mounting tensions after the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair, the British government felt war was inevitable and native allies helpful. The British were more interested in stopping the northward expansion of the Americans than their westward movement, but both goals were beneficial to British interior trade. To most native tribes, Britain was the lesser of two white evils and might help them keep their lands.
"Tecumseh’s followers, by some estimates about 4,000 warriors, were not the only Native Americans interested in fighting back against American expansion during the war. The Creek nation, numbering about 20,000 in the southern United States, also sought more favorable terms. According to an 1805 treaty, a federal road, or horse and wagon path, ran through Creek territory from central Georgia to Mobile, Alabama Territory. Increasing numbers of white migrants with their black slaves passed westward along this road, and white squatters were settling on lands still not open to them.
"The Creek Indians knew about Tecumseh’s confederacy and learned the “dance of the Indians of the lakes,” a spiritual ritual from the Shawnee prophets and warriors in the Ohio Valley. Some Creek warriors called themselves Red Sticks and were led by prophets seeking cultural renewal and freedom from the European invaders through mastery of the spirit world. The Red Sticks obstructed the federal road and killed travelers. Although a corn-cultivating society, the Creek ultimately fled for the spiritual power and protection of the forests where the women learned how to increase the food supply by gathering.
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" ... Jefferson dreamed of an agrarian nation of independent landowners. He disliked the growth of cities, industry, and trade, which he associated with corruption and inequality. The Democratic-Republicans were also anti-Federalist because the Federalists were interested in developing exactly the opposite trends: banking, trade, industry, and economic growth. Alexander Hamilton, until his death in 1804, had been the leader of the Federalists. Under presidents Jefferson, Madison, and afterward, Monroe, for 24 years, the Democratic-Republicans dominated the executive branch of government and often all of Congress as well. Their agrarian policies fueled westward expansion.
"The only way to encourage an agrarian society is to give it massive amounts of land. Jefferson made the Louisiana Purchase of 530,000,000 acres of land in 1803, and numerous Indian treaties added many more. Still the War Hawks coveted Canada.
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"The War Hawks appeared in Congress during Madison’s first term. Their numbers were mostly made up of the younger representatives in the House from the southern and western states. More senior members of Congress sometimes ridiculed them as “boys,” but in December 1811, charismatic War Hawk Henry Clay of Kentucky was elected by his party as Speaker of the House, the most powerful leadership position in the House of Representatives. With Clay as their leader, the War Hawks could push steadily for war with Britain in spite of Madison’s reluctance."
"The War Hawks had no use for embargoes. They argued that war was the only way to truly protect American honor and sovereignty, to stop impressment, and to retaliate against British agents who armed Indians on the western frontier. The agrarian imperative to expand necessitated the use of war in order to annex Canada and Florida—another piece of real estate on the War Hawks’ lists. With these added territories, all Americans would be able to own their own land, be fully independent, and depend on no one else for survival.
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"The voices of the Federalists, who came mostly from the northeastern part of the country, were outnumbered in the government. Federalists saw the current problem as more simply a matter of trade interference and favored a diplomatic solution. War, they feared, would cut off all trade and be devastating to America’s economy, especially in the northeastern cities. On the practical side of political matters, adding new land would ultimately result in more agrarian states that would vote Democratic-Republican, so this war effort was also a maneuver to use the party system to tip the political balance even further from Federalism. Above all, the Federalists felt it was unjust that the country should go to war when the war only favored one section of the country while doing serious damage to another.
"The desire to annex Canada was initially strong. Many Americans had settled in Canada, and by 1812 made up three-quarters of its population. War Hawks in Washington expected Americans living in Canadian territories to flock to the invading troops in support, although that did not happen. In the northeastern United States, where international trade policies had had the most adverse effects, Americans still mostly opposed the war, and during the conflict, many New Englanders carried on illicit trade with Canada, aiding the British war effort with foodstuffs, timber, and other supplies.
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"The Americans who lived in Canada desired that trade as well. Many nearby districts of Canada had been settled by economic migrants from the United States. They had moved to Canada for the free land and lower taxes and generally felt only casual allegiance to the British Crown. Yet their American origins did not make them favor the American side of the coming conflict either. These migrant farmers wanted only peace in order to preserve their agricultural and trading interests. Despite their neutrality, they eventually saw more land-based hostilities than any other region of the continent."
" ... Life in Canada seemed quieter. Mennonites, Quakers, and other members of the historic peace churches called war an “anti-Christian practice,” in the words of Quaker James Moore in the tract, “A Lamentation for Pennsylvania.” They did not support the fighting of a violent revolution for any purpose, no matter how noble seeming. Many protested the impending second conflict and refused to pay the militia tax when it was imposed."
" ... Those who faced prison as a consequence of their principles risked death in squalid conditions, as was the case with Joseph Roberts who died from exposure in the York (now Toronto) prison during a harsh winter."
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"“And whereas, by the same order, ‘all trading in English merchandise is prohibited, and every article of merchandise belonging to England, or coming from her colonies, or of her manufacture, is declared lawful prize.’”
"—Order in Council, November 11, 1807"
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"The Orders in Council, passed by Britain in 1807, were by 1811 causing damage to British exports. These fell by nearly 18,000,000 pounds in value over one year. The causes were partly Napoleon’s recent actions on the continent—inhibiting British trade as well as American involvement in Atlantic trade, inflation, and speculation. The British suffered from the economic slump of 1811, but even the Americans felt it. Within Britain, the price of bread rose, aggravated by two years of poor harvests. Popular discontent against the Napoleonic war grew.
"Beginning as early as November 1810, Napoleon had started to loosen the constraints of the Berlin and Milan Decrees in so far as they covered American trade. President Madison asked the British several months later to revoke the Orders in Council of 1807. By November 1811, both France and Britain had eased their respective trade restrictions so that merchants were feeling relief. Goods such as cotton, quinine, sugar, coffee, tea, and dyes could move more freely from colonial ports, and ships under different flags had fewer constraints. Economically, conditions looked a little hopeful.
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" ... New England states were hurt far more severely than southern states. Yet, when war was declared, Massachusetts governor Caleb Strong was loud in his condemnation. When Madison asked for the Massachusetts Militia’s help in the war effort, Strong refused to send his soldiers out of the state. In response, Madison sent no infantry to all of New England."
" ... New England leaders were never as angry at the British as they were with Washington during the course of the war. Frequent talk of secession from the union nearly came to a head late in the war with the Hartford Convention."
" ... Democratic-Republicans saw any anti-war talk as unpatriotic and worthy of severe punishment without any due process of law. The publisher of the Federal Republican, Alexander Contee Hanson, succeeded in provoking the mob to the extent that they destroyed his office and printing press. For Hanson, “The last hope of civilization, law, and order was old Mother England.”"
" ... Reportedly armed with clubs, knives, and hot oil, the mob attacked the Federalists with murderous intent. Lingan was killed while eleven others were severely injured. Henry Lee was thought dead but made a partial recovery until he succumbed to his injuries in 1818. Alexander Hanson was badly injured and died in 1819 at the age of 33. A witness to the riot reported the crowd was shouting, “We’ll root out the damn’d tories. We’ll drink their blood. We’ll eat their hearts.”"
"Despite the preference for volunteers, only about 70,000 participated on the American side during the entire war. The remaining 458,000 soldiers were militiamen."
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"“The acquisition of Canada this year, as far as the neighborhood of Quebec, will be a mere matter of marching, and will give us experience for the attack of Halifax the next, and the final expulsion of England from the American continent.”
"—Thomas Jefferson"
As despicable as Hitler’s policy and actions were a half a century later, he was merely emulating this!
Hitler wasn't that different, then! On the contrary - in occupying Europe and getting rid of non-German populations (by various means including extermination) thereof only half a century later, he was merely emulating the earlier US policy of expansion for his own, of acquiring a "lebensraum" for Germans!
And for all that, Thomas Jefferson isn't even criticised in UK, US or Europe, while Germans are and quite definitely so, for merely copying UK and US.
Mere racism there?
Doing in Europe to European populations, exactly as was bring done to rest of the world, from India to Africa to Alaska to Ushuaia to Hawaii to Indonesia, was a no-no, because only of race?
As despicable as Hitler’s policy and actions were a half a century later, he was merely emulating a not so much earlier US!
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"After the Revolution, the United States sold all its warships, but in 1794, six frigates were built to fight against privateers from the Barbary State of North Africa. ... "
Author fails to explain why.
Why were US in need of warring against "Barbary State of North Africa"? They weren't in the way of US expansion across continent, and US wasn't colonising any part of Africa.
So. Why were US in need of warring against "Barbary State of North Africa"? Author isn't saying.
Why? Paid by oil money?
Reality is about "privateers from the Barbary State of North Africa" being busy kidnapping European women, and generally women of European descent, from ships plying across Atlantic, especially those travelling from Mediterranean ports, for purposes of breeding, in an effort to whitewash the progeny.
Hence the germination of US navy.
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" ... In 1812, there were four classes of vessels in use: the sloop with one mast and one deck; the brig with two masts and one deck; the frigate with three masts and two decks; and the man-of-war—or ship of the line—with multiple masts and decks. The United States had no ships of the line. At the beginning of the war, the American Navy counted only nine frigates, including the heavy frigate Constitution, and the remainder of their ships in smaller classes, although different sources vary in the exact number.
" ... Royal Navy listed approximately 140,000 seamen on wages, of whom 31,000 were trained marines. The Americans, on the other hand, had 5,000 seamen and 1,000 marines. But Royal Navy ships suffered from a lack of manpower for which the hated policy of impressment was their best solution. Impressed sailors could be expected to lack loyalty. American shipboard conditions were no better, but many sailors came from coastal communities and were experienced on merchant, whaling, and fishing ships. They were motivated to fight for their freedom to trade, and their officers had practical combat experience against the Barbary States."
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" ... James Madison had hoped to bring the war to an early end. From U.S. Ambassador to Russia, John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams, Madison received the message that the tsar might act as a mediator between the United States and Great Britain. Madison was happy to accept the proposition and sent Albert Gallatin and James Bayard to join Adams as potential commissioners for that purpose in St. Petersburg. However, in September 1812, England was not at all interested in mediation.
"America had planned a four-pronged attack on Canada. As it happened, two of the attacks failed, and two were not launched. ... "
They forget these little details when mentioning the US-Canadian border as the most peaceful international border.
"The 1812 Canadian campaign was a failure for the Americans, but the loss of General Brock was nevertheless a major blow to the British. ... The American fort had been evacuated by its garrison after a bombardment from British batteries the afternoon of the battle and could have been taken."
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"“You, too, will be driven away from your native land and ancient domains as leaves are driven before the wintry storms. Sleep not longer, O Choctaws and Chickasaws, in false security and delusive hopes. Our broad domains are fast escaping from our grasp.”
"—Tecumseh, Shawnee chief"
The title Gone With The Wind with its heartbreaking inherent meaning and connotations fits them far more.
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"Winchester did not pay attention to warnings of gathering British troops. By early January 22, 600 regulars and 800 Indians attacked. Winchester had placed his guards poorly, and the Americans quickly lost ground. There are several versions of what happened next, but it seems that Winchester’s troops were split and neither part could hold their position. Winchester was captured by Chief Roundhead of the Wyandot, and he surrendered to General Procter in return for protection and aid given to the wounded, but according to eyewitness accounts, 68 of the severely wounded were killed by the warriors. Harrison had not arrived in time.
"The native rationale for killing the prisoners was that the prisoners were too badly injured to march from the battle site in Michigan Territory into Canada where the army needed to go. General Winchester himself was taken into Canada and kept in prison for over a year. The news angered Kentuckians back home, and thousands more from that territory volunteered for military service as a result."
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" ... One incident of the battle that has achieved more importance in recent years was the deliberate explosion of the great munitions magazine set off by the retreating British troops at Fort York. The massive explosion sent rocks, cannonballs, and masses of debris flying into the Americans who were just advancing within range. Recent archaeological excavations of the crater left behind have created a new appreciation for the force of the explosion. ... The explosion was so deadly and destructive that the Americans did not accept it as a normal act of property destruction by a retreating army and sought revenge.
"York was plundered by an outraged U.S. army from April 28 to 30. The buildings of the Legislative Assembly were burned, and the Parliamentary mace of Upper Canada was taken to Washington and not returned until 1934 by President Franklin Roosevelt. The national printing office was destroyed. The American commander, Major General Henry Dearborn, appeared to do little to control his troops’ destructive behavior."
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" ... Noting the danger of the British artillery, Harrison sent word to General Green Clay and his Kentucky militia to come and overrun the British guns. This they did well but disobeyed the orders by chasing the British into the woods where the Kentuckians were ambushed. ... "
"The outcome was a victory for the United States. Tecumseh was a major casualty of this charge, as was Roundhead. Hunger may have played a role in the poor performance of the British regulars. The conflict has been known both as the Battle of the Thames and the Battle of Moraviantown. Along with the events on Lake Erie, it gave control of the Northwest Territories to the United States, and with Tecumseh’s passing, the confederacy dissolved.
"One last engagement of note in 1813 was the battle at Crysler’s Farm on November 11. A British and Canadian force about 60 miles southwest of Montreal defeated a much larger American army. The United States plan to take Montreal had been the primary occupation Secretary of War John Armstrong, Jr. for much of 1813, and one more attempt would be made."
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................................................................................................
"“I do not believe it would have been possible to have continued [after Napoleon] for the purpose of carrying on an American war.”
"—Prime Minister Robert Jenkinson,
"2nd Earl of Liverpool"
................................................................................................
" ... On August 30, 1813, Creek warriors, calling themselves Red Sticks, had attacked Fort Mims in modern Alabama. Sometimes called a battle and other times a massacre, this conflict killed over 500 soldiers and settlers and 100 warriors. Tensions existed before, but now they were stirred higher and culminated in the March 27, 1814 Battle of Horseshoe Bend.
"The Creek Indians had been trying to adapt to advancing white settlement. Originally a hunting and gathering society, many Creek were adjusting to an agricultural lifestyle including animal herding imposed by restricted settlement areas. Having been exposed to European goods, the Creek resented the government’s limitations on access to imports through official trading stores and the continuing pressure on resources from settlers.
"The Creek were a large, well-organized confederacy of settlements capable of bringing a great many warriors under a collective leadership. In many ways, they were a more formidable but lesser known native opposition to the Americans during the war than Tecumseh’s confederacy in the north. When General Andrew Jackson led his militia against 800 Creek warriors at Horseshoe Bend, he won national attention with a victory that gave the United States a treaty ceding more than 21,000,000 acres of Creek lands."
................................................................................................
" ... The Battle of Chippawa was short but a welcome victory for the Americans as well as a precursor for the Battle of Lundy’s Lane on July 25 when the two armies met again."
" ... Ready for each other with higher stakes, casualties on both sides were much higher than at Chippawa Creek. Riall, Drummond, Scott, and Brown were all badly wounded. Eventually, the exhausted American troops withdrew and were not pursued. Their advance was halted, and they retreated to Fort Erie.
"While armies were approaching Lundy’s Lane in Ontario, William Henry Harrison and Michigan Territory Governor Lewis Cass were negotiating the Treaty of Greenville with American and Canadian tribes, including the Wyandot, Delaware, Shawnee, Seneca, Miami, Potawatomi, Ottawa, and Kickapoo. The United States sought to disconnect these tribes from their British alliances and to obtain promises that no separate peace would be made by them with Britain. In return for “the faithful performance of the conditions of this treaty, the United States will confirm and establish all the boundaries between their lands and those of the Wyandots, Delawares, Shawanoese, and Miamies, as they existed previously to the commencement of the war,” signed by all parties on July 22, 1814."
Did they know what they signed?
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"British General Drummond’s first efforts in the siege of Fort Erie began on August 3 but not until the night of August 15 was a direct assault mounted. ... "
"Britain began planning naval strikes down the eastern American coast. Rear Admiral George Cockburn had already been raiding the Chesapeake region, and Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane was sent in support. In Washington, a worried Madison called a Cabinet meeting on July 1, but Secretary of War Armstrong insisted that the capital was an unlikely target although Baltimore might be in danger. Armstrong gave military command of the region to the inexperienced Brigadier General William Winder who proceeded uncertainly.
................................................................................................
"A brigade of Napoleonic war veterans under Major General Robert Ross arrived on August 15. Contrary to Armstrong’s expectations, the British forces aimed for Bladensburg, Maryland near the District of Columbia on August 24. The point of battle was so near to Washington that both Monroe and Madison initially went to the scene. The weather was sultry and threatening. Winder’s militiamen were not prepared for the blast of the British artillery, and they did not know how to withdraw in an orderly fashion. When the line broke, it collapsed. Later commentators sarcastically referred to the retreat as the “Bladensburg Races.” Madison and his contingent barely stayed ahead of the retreat. By evening, the British reached D.C. Among the buildings burned, in retaliation for the American treatment of York, were the Capitol, the Executive Mansion, and the Treasury Building.
"First Lady Dolley Madison did not leave the presidential home until the last moment when she received the news of the battlefield defeat as Ross and Cockburn marched on Washington. Although she had wisely already packed all of the important state papers into the carriages standing ready to flee, Mrs. Madison is most famous for having thought only at the last moment to save the Gilbert Stuart portrait of George Washington."
................................................................................................
" ... For two days after the burning of Washington, hurricane-force storms impeded the armies and all travelers as they both headed toward Maryland. Madison, having first attempted for Maryland, heard that the British had left Washington and therefore summoned his cabinet on August 27 to join him in D.C. Mrs. Madison also returned and went to live in the home of her sister and brother-in-law until she could arrange a house for her and the president."
" ... The British believed that Baltimore was the seat for many of the American privateers, and therefore, an assault on Baltimore was the next objective. The assault by land would approach under Ross’s command via North Point while the naval attack under Cochrane aimed for Fort McHenry."
" ... Witnessing the overnight bombardment of Fort McHenry, which lasted 25 hours, Francis Scott Key was moved to write the words that would become the lyrics for the American national anthem."
" ... With these battles, Britain and the United States were ready to begin discussing a treaty of peace at Ghent, Belgium."
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................................................................................................
" ... By December, Federalists decided to call delegates from the northern states to attend a convention to discuss “Mr. Madison’s War.” In particular, they were concerned about the president’s ability to bring all of the states into a war that some opposed. On December 15, delegates from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Vermont met at Hartford, Connecticut. New Hampshire and Vermont, however, did not choose to join in an official capacity.
"The participants included some of the most influential men of New England. ... Madison sent a regiment to Hartford pretending to collect recruits but in fact trying to gather information."
................................................................................................
"The Hartford Convention delegates did not know that while they were meeting, a peace treaty was at last achieving completion in Ghent. As the fortunes of war had shifted in 1814, the negotiations had changed course, but news traveled slowly across the Atlantic. Meanwhile Britain encountered trouble with Russia at the Congress of Vienna over ending the Napoleonic conflict and became more eager to get the North American discussion out of the way."
"The British and American negotiating teams signed and sealed the treaty in Belgium on December 24, 1814. It was approved by Parliament and the prince regent in London on December 30. General Andrew Jackson did not hear of it until after he had fought the Battle of New Orleans in January 1815. General Pakenham, the leader of the British forces at New Orleans, had been warned secretly through channels that a treaty was in progress, but he was killed in the same battle on January 8. The treaty took weeks to reach America by ship, and it was not ratified by the United States Senate until February 17, 1815."
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................................................................................................
" ... Napoleon escaped from his prison on Elba on February 26, 1815, and Britain had no more time for North America. In fact, Britain was very annoyed with the United States. For years Britain had been fighting the major threat of Napoleon while Madison and their old colonies had been such a nuisance. Britain never expended more than seven percent of its military effort in the American war and afterward barely seemed to acknowledge that it happened. Their only real goal had been to keep Canada intact. Success achieved.
"The Canadians were relieved that they were still a separate colony with their own identity. If anything, the war had given them an identity. Canadian communities had been burned and looted by American troops during the war, and although time healed all wounds, Canadians felt they had successfully stood their ground against their southern neighbor. It was also a benefit that the Canadian economy had gained a wartime boost. Life was good.
................................................................................................
"The combatants who lost everything in the War of 1812 were the native tribes. They had hoped to win an agreement to keep their lands and peoples intact, to not be forced into further westward migrations, altered economies, or marginalization, but although the British made some effort to keep their promise to Tecumseh, the American negotiators at Ghent were not interested in hearing about making land concessions to the Indians. The conversation was soon dropped and forgotten with no further thought of giving representation to the Native Americans. By the end of the war, American possession of Indian lands had greatly increased, and the push for westward expansion amplified. No one cared to consider the costs to the Native Americans."
" ... As the War Hawk generation matured, it faced the much more complicated and dangerous rising tide of civil war over slavery. Although they could not put out that conflagration, years of compromises attempted to postpone it. The one lesson that was not learned for a very long time was when a country is built on equality, it cannot function without including all the people living within its borders."
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Table of Contents
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Introduction
Uneasiness in the New Century
War Hawks and Neutrality
Declaration and Reaction
The Campaign of 1812
The Campaign of 1813 1814: War in the Balance
Final Conflict and Peace
Conclusion
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REVIEW
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Introduction
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As one begins reading, it's confusing, shocking, and finally, infuriating at being cheated, and seeing the hubris of a publication series now one's certain is based in US!
"The War of 1812 is a complicated war with as many as four different sides, each with its own plan for success. Pitched against each other were the United States, Canada, the Native tribes, and Great Britain."
WHAT????!!!!!
For most of us, the very mention of 1812, especially in context of a war, signifies Tchaikovsky and his 1812, written honouring and welcoming Napoleon's advent into Moscow.
"The Year 1812, Solemn Overture, Op. 49, popularly known as the 1812 Overture, is a concert overture in E♭ major written in 1880 by Russian composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky to commemorate the successful Russian defense against Napoleon I's invading Grande Armée in 1812. Wikipedia"
And to those of us literate, having lived for better part of a decade during vital years does not change that association, but on the contrary, gets affirmed if not formed in the first place.
................................................................................................
"The Americans objected to the British blockade of trade with France and the continent. When the Royal Navy began boarding American ships to search out sailors suspected of being British citizens, the Americans tried both political and physical means to assert their neutrality on the seas. War Hawk politicians in the United States, on the other hand, started eyeing the taking of Canadian territory as a suitable retribution against British aggression. Canada, though still a British colony, found itself fighting for independence against the Americans. Native Americans, unhappy with recent treaties and forced movements westward, sought a solution and a homeland in the turmoil. Many tribes joined under Shawnee Chief Tecumseh in alliance with the British in an effort to gain political power against the Americans and secure sovereign territory for themselves in the interior of America. Through it all, Britain fought to hold on to its interests in North America."
As proud as US is of her earlier migrants having cheated, robbed and massacred the natives - hence the paki friendship? - since this bunch of skirmishes went on for at least half a decade, wouldn't it be less cheating to call it, say, Early Nineteenth Century War Between Four Across The Pond, instead of stealing the title 1812 from a dead maestro venerated in world of music, not to mention from Napoleon with his conquest of Europe and arrival in Moscow?
................................................................................................
"The United States was still a new nation sometimes unsure how to proceed with acts of governance. In 1810, the Twelfth Congress had been elected and was seated the following March in accordance with the schedule in the Constitution. The Democratic-Republican Party, also the party of President James Madison who was elected to a four-year term in 1808, held the majority in both the House and the Senate.
"Despite President Washington’s warning against the formation of political parties, America quickly became a two-party nation. The Federalist Party, promoting centralizing policies, was run by Alexander Hamilton while the Democratic-Republican Party, organized by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison (but not related to either of the two modern parties known by the same names), opposed strong centralization and supported states’ rights even to the extent of allowing states to nullify a federal law."
Which didn't help union in 1861.
"The 1810 national census revealed the United States to be a fast-growing nation. The increase in population over the preceding decade was 36.4 percent. The actual population total was 7,239,881, mostly in the north where the four largest cities—New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston—were located. Seventeen states were now in the union, up from the original thirteen, and new territories were forming westward.
"James Madison had the challenge or misfortune to become president in a time of political crisis. Declared by future generations both a Founding Father and the Father of the Constitution for his work in drafting the document, his achievements in office have generally been judged as above average in recent surveys of political historians. This judgment is reflected by his decisions and actions during the years leading up to and during the conflict of the War of 1812."
War of 1805-1814 would be far more accurate.
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October 31, 2022 - October 31, 2022.
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Chapter 1. Uneasiness in the New Century
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"History books rarely note that the 1803 Louisiana Purchase had disturbing consequences for Native American tribes. Until Napoleon quietly ceded the massive tracts of the Louisiana Purchase west of the Mississippi to the United States, native tribes did not expect to be pushed continually westward. Immediately after the Louisiana Purchase was made, the American government increased negotiations for more white settlement on remaining Indian lands east of the Mississippi."
"Negotiations"?????
................................................................................................
"One region that was particularly strategic for trade routes and river traffic was the portion of the Mississippi River Valley from Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, south to East St. Louis, Illinois. The first governor of the Indiana Territory, which included the present state of Illinois, was the future president, William Henry Harrison. Taking advantage of sudden unrest between the Sauk and some settlers due to an argument ending in a settler homicide, Harrison demanded that the Sauk meet with him and bring the accused. Five Sauk warriors came, apparently expecting that they were going to negotiate traditional compensation for the relatives of the killed man, “to cover the blood” in their words, as was done among the tribes. In no way did these five men have authority to negotiate land sales, and Harrison knew that well. The man who was the killer was not released but, to the others’ dismay, executed for murder that day. The warrior Black Hawk later wrote in his autobiography that the Sauk men did not understand the document they had signed on November 3, 1804. Its official name is Ratified Indian Treaty #43, sometimes called the Treaty of St. Louis. Harrison and the government insisted the treaty gave to the United States all Sauk and Fox rights to lands extending over large parts of Wisconsin, Illinois, and Missouri."
Funny, do they teach their children that cheating is all right as long as you kill the ones you cheat?
"Dealings with Native Americans to the west were not going well for all concerned. To the east, on the ocean and in Europe, continuing wars disrupted trade. The United States wanted to be treated as neutral by England and France, but there were maritime blockades and restrictions to consider.
................................................................................................
"In July 1805, the British Admiralty Court ruled that the Royal Navy had been correct to seize the U.S. merchant ship Essex on its way from Massachusetts to Cuba. The Essex, which began its voyage from Spain, had violated the Rule of 1756 stating that trade normally not occurring between certain partners in peacetime was likewise not allowed to occur in wartime. Specifically, Britain was at war with France and was preventing French and Spanish ships from making contact with their American colonies. American merchants, such as those operating the Essex, were forbidden to take goods from Barcelona to Salem, Massachusetts, and then onto Havana for profit and still claim neutral status at sea. The stop at an American port was primarily for the appearance of legality. Since American merchants did not normally run this trade to and from the foreign colonies in peacetime, they could not do it when a British war blockade was in effect. After the Essex Decision, many American merchant ships were seized, and although the ships and some crew might eventually be released, the Americans responded with anger.
"This was the beginning of a series of measures and countermeasures between the British and Americans that escalated into war. In 1806, still under the second administration of Thomas Jefferson, Congress enacted the Non-Importation Act. In response to the Essex Decision and the ongoing impressment of American sailors, Congress and Jefferson sought an economic means to assert American sovereignty. A number of items formerly traded between Britain and America were now banned. A brief list includes: all articles made chiefly of leather, silk, hemp, flax, tin, or brass; expensive woolen clothes and hosiery; window glass and glassware; silver and plated goods, nails and spikes; hats; beer, ale, and porter; and pictures and prints. Penalties were severe.
................................................................................................
"The Non-Importation Act failed for several reasons: American merchants complained loudly about lost profits; other countries quickly took over as middlemen for banned products; and the provisions of the bill were poorly written and difficult to enforce. Rather than amend the bill, Jefferson suspended it for long periods until it was replaced by the Embargo Act.
"The Monroe-Pinkney Treaty of 1806 was another failed effort that led to escalating conflict. James Monroe and William Pinkney on behalf of Thomas Jefferson negotiated with Lords Holland and Auckland representing Lord Grenville in an attempt to renew the Jay Treaty of 1794. Jefferson’s chief concerns were the continuing impressment of sailors from American ships and America’s claims to neutral shipping rights. An estimated 6,000 Americans were impressed onto British ships in the years leading up to the war. The policy of impressment of alleged British deserters was important to the British because their ships suffered from a manpower shortage. The final treaty offered neither neutrality nor a cessation of impressment. Jefferson refused to sign it when he examined it in March 1807.
................................................................................................
"The same year also brought a serious physical confrontation between British and American warships, the H.M.S. Leopard and the U.S.S. Chesapeake. At this time, American, French, and British warships were all present in the Chesapeake Bay. British deserters took the opportunity to sneak over to several of the U.S. Navy ships. The British complained without result. On June 22, as the Chesapeake was leaving, the Leopard’s command demanded to examine a muster of the American crew. Although his ship was not ready to fight, the American Commodore Barron refused. A quick exchange of fire led to four deaths, seventeen injuries, and Barron’s surrender of the ship. The British boarded, impressed four foreign sailors (two were ultimately returned as mistaken identifications), and returned the ship and crew to Barron. The United States Navy suspended Barron from service for five years. This incident caused the War Hawks in Congress to clamor for war, but Jefferson postponed action until passions had cooled.
"Britain meanwhile passed Orders in Council forbidding French trade with Britain, its allies, and neutrals. Napoleon answered with the Berlin and Milan Decrees asserting that neutral shipping using British ports or paying British tariffs would be regarded as British and seized. With the failure of the Non-Importation Act the previous year, the Americans replaced it with the Embargo Act, but it suffered the same problems of enforcement while stirring up more domestic protests against the government in Washington and its handling of impressment, captures, and seizures. All these actions occurred in 1807.
................................................................................................
"The news from the west became more distressing. James Madison won the election of 1808, becoming president in March 1809. Fighting escalated in the Indiana Territory under Governor William Henry Harrison. His primary opposition, it was increasingly perceived, was the Shawnee Chief Tecumseh, born 1768 in Ohio, who had joined with his brother Laulewasikau, also known as the Prophet Tenskwatawa, both calling for a return to traditional cultural values and rejection of white influences. Tecumseh envisioned a large Indian confederacy preserving native lands and cultures while holding back white encroachment. He attracted many followers among the younger braves of numerous tribes, but the older leaders seemed to fear for the disruption of authority while Harrison and local white settlers felt threatened."
And he had to pay with his life if they "felt threatened", despite their selves being the aggressors robbing natives of land and life!
"Harrison’s aggressive treaty practices and documented tendencies to offer temporary support to someone, or some group, particularly when he needed cooperation from them, would become a focus of conflict in his future interactions with Tecumseh. Harrison’s driving objective was the acquisition of land for the United States. With the 1809 Treaty of Fort Wayne, he is said to have worked through the tribes involved, beginning with the agreeable Potawatomie who convinced the unwilling Miami to sign. Harrison and the Miami then offered the Wea, who were absent at the first negotiations, a subsidy to sign. Finally, Harrison promised the Wea an additional subsidy if they could also get the Kickapoo to sign. The treaty was finalized in the spring of 1810, ceding over 3,000,000 acres of Indian land to American settlers."
Did they know it amounted to their own permanent ouster from their land?
................................................................................................
"Tecumseh was outraged. He proclaimed that Indian lands belonged to all tribes, and no lands could be sold without the consent of all. Tecumseh now set out intentionally to convince all tribes of this policy and of the necessity for a great Indian confederacy.
"Tecumseh was elsewhere in 1811 garnering support when Harrison made a sudden attack with an army of 1,100 soldiers on Tecumseh’s settlement, Prophet’s Town. The town was burned, and more critically, the food supply was destroyed. Laulewasikau responded but was defeated in battle—according to original accounts. In more modern assessments, Harrison’s forces took a beating, and the result was more of a draw. Harrison had twice as many men as Laulewasikau and suffered 200 casualties of whom 60 died. Tecumseh’s people lost 50 warriors with perhaps 80 wounded. Unfortunately, Laulewasikau had promised his warriors that the white men’s bullets would not hurt them. When this failed to be true, he and Tecumseh lost credibility. The confrontation on November 7 became known to Americans as the Battle of Tippecanoe. Harrison made the tale of the battle into his greatest victory and the core of his later presidential campaign."
So Harrison was a liar.
"The battle turned the tribes against the idea of a confederacy, and support for Tecumseh’s plan dispersed. White settlers in the Indiana Territory became much more confident of their safety. Tecumseh needed another plan."
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October 31, 2022 - November 01, 2022.
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Chapter 2. War Hawks and Neutrality
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"“Poor is his triumph, and disgrac’d his name, Who draws the sword for empire, wealth, or fame.”
"—A New England Farmer [John Lowell, Jr.]"
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"British provincial forces traditionally had kept an open relationship with native peoples in America, and this policy was about to be put to the test. The British Governor in Canada, Lieutenant-General Sir George Prévost, hearing the murmurs of war on all sides and noting the setback of Tecumseh’s alliance at Tippecanoe, proposed to discuss an alliance with Tecumseh and his warriors. Prévost saw Tecumseh’s followers as useful allies in the coming defense of Canada against the Americans. In fact, the British had been giving arms and ammunition quietly to the natives since about 1807. With mounting tensions after the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair, the British government felt war was inevitable and native allies helpful. The British were more interested in stopping the northward expansion of the Americans than their westward movement, but both goals were beneficial to British interior trade. To most native tribes, Britain was the lesser of two white evils and might help them keep their lands.
"Tecumseh’s followers, by some estimates about 4,000 warriors, were not the only Native Americans interested in fighting back against American expansion during the war. The Creek nation, numbering about 20,000 in the southern United States, also sought more favorable terms. According to an 1805 treaty, a federal road, or horse and wagon path, ran through Creek territory from central Georgia to Mobile, Alabama Territory. Increasing numbers of white migrants with their black slaves passed westward along this road, and white squatters were settling on lands still not open to them.
"The Creek Indians knew about Tecumseh’s confederacy and learned the “dance of the Indians of the lakes,” a spiritual ritual from the Shawnee prophets and warriors in the Ohio Valley. Some Creek warriors called themselves Red Sticks and were led by prophets seeking cultural renewal and freedom from the European invaders through mastery of the spirit world. The Red Sticks obstructed the federal road and killed travelers. Although a corn-cultivating society, the Creek ultimately fled for the spiritual power and protection of the forests where the women learned how to increase the food supply by gathering.
................................................................................................
" ... Jefferson dreamed of an agrarian nation of independent landowners. He disliked the growth of cities, industry, and trade, which he associated with corruption and inequality. The Democratic-Republicans were also anti-Federalist because the Federalists were interested in developing exactly the opposite trends: banking, trade, industry, and economic growth. Alexander Hamilton, until his death in 1804, had been the leader of the Federalists. Under presidents Jefferson, Madison, and afterward, Monroe, for 24 years, the Democratic-Republicans dominated the executive branch of government and often all of Congress as well. Their agrarian policies fueled westward expansion.
"The only way to encourage an agrarian society is to give it massive amounts of land. Jefferson made the Louisiana Purchase of 530,000,000 acres of land in 1803, and numerous Indian treaties added many more. Still the War Hawks coveted Canada.
................................................................................................
"The War Hawks appeared in Congress during Madison’s first term. Their numbers were mostly made up of the younger representatives in the House from the southern and western states. More senior members of Congress sometimes ridiculed them as “boys,” but in December 1811, charismatic War Hawk Henry Clay of Kentucky was elected by his party as Speaker of the House, the most powerful leadership position in the House of Representatives. With Clay as their leader, the War Hawks could push steadily for war with Britain in spite of Madison’s reluctance."
"The War Hawks had no use for embargoes. They argued that war was the only way to truly protect American honor and sovereignty, to stop impressment, and to retaliate against British agents who armed Indians on the western frontier. The agrarian imperative to expand necessitated the use of war in order to annex Canada and Florida—another piece of real estate on the War Hawks’ lists. With these added territories, all Americans would be able to own their own land, be fully independent, and depend on no one else for survival.
................................................................................................
"The voices of the Federalists, who came mostly from the northeastern part of the country, were outnumbered in the government. Federalists saw the current problem as more simply a matter of trade interference and favored a diplomatic solution. War, they feared, would cut off all trade and be devastating to America’s economy, especially in the northeastern cities. On the practical side of political matters, adding new land would ultimately result in more agrarian states that would vote Democratic-Republican, so this war effort was also a maneuver to use the party system to tip the political balance even further from Federalism. Above all, the Federalists felt it was unjust that the country should go to war when the war only favored one section of the country while doing serious damage to another.
"The desire to annex Canada was initially strong. Many Americans had settled in Canada, and by 1812 made up three-quarters of its population. War Hawks in Washington expected Americans living in Canadian territories to flock to the invading troops in support, although that did not happen. In the northeastern United States, where international trade policies had had the most adverse effects, Americans still mostly opposed the war, and during the conflict, many New Englanders carried on illicit trade with Canada, aiding the British war effort with foodstuffs, timber, and other supplies.
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"The Americans who lived in Canada desired that trade as well. Many nearby districts of Canada had been settled by economic migrants from the United States. They had moved to Canada for the free land and lower taxes and generally felt only casual allegiance to the British Crown. Yet their American origins did not make them favor the American side of the coming conflict either. These migrant farmers wanted only peace in order to preserve their agricultural and trading interests. Despite their neutrality, they eventually saw more land-based hostilities than any other region of the continent."
" ... Life in Canada seemed quieter. Mennonites, Quakers, and other members of the historic peace churches called war an “anti-Christian practice,” in the words of Quaker James Moore in the tract, “A Lamentation for Pennsylvania.” They did not support the fighting of a violent revolution for any purpose, no matter how noble seeming. Many protested the impending second conflict and refused to pay the militia tax when it was imposed."
" ... Those who faced prison as a consequence of their principles risked death in squalid conditions, as was the case with Joseph Roberts who died from exposure in the York (now Toronto) prison during a harsh winter."
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November 01, 2022 - November 01, 2022.
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Chapter 3. Declaration and Reaction
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"“And whereas, by the same order, ‘all trading in English merchandise is prohibited, and every article of merchandise belonging to England, or coming from her colonies, or of her manufacture, is declared lawful prize.’”
"—Order in Council, November 11, 1807"
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"The Orders in Council, passed by Britain in 1807, were by 1811 causing damage to British exports. These fell by nearly 18,000,000 pounds in value over one year. The causes were partly Napoleon’s recent actions on the continent—inhibiting British trade as well as American involvement in Atlantic trade, inflation, and speculation. The British suffered from the economic slump of 1811, but even the Americans felt it. Within Britain, the price of bread rose, aggravated by two years of poor harvests. Popular discontent against the Napoleonic war grew.
"Beginning as early as November 1810, Napoleon had started to loosen the constraints of the Berlin and Milan Decrees in so far as they covered American trade. President Madison asked the British several months later to revoke the Orders in Council of 1807. By November 1811, both France and Britain had eased their respective trade restrictions so that merchants were feeling relief. Goods such as cotton, quinine, sugar, coffee, tea, and dyes could move more freely from colonial ports, and ships under different flags had fewer constraints. Economically, conditions looked a little hopeful.
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" ... New England states were hurt far more severely than southern states. Yet, when war was declared, Massachusetts governor Caleb Strong was loud in his condemnation. When Madison asked for the Massachusetts Militia’s help in the war effort, Strong refused to send his soldiers out of the state. In response, Madison sent no infantry to all of New England."
" ... New England leaders were never as angry at the British as they were with Washington during the course of the war. Frequent talk of secession from the union nearly came to a head late in the war with the Hartford Convention."
" ... Democratic-Republicans saw any anti-war talk as unpatriotic and worthy of severe punishment without any due process of law. The publisher of the Federal Republican, Alexander Contee Hanson, succeeded in provoking the mob to the extent that they destroyed his office and printing press. For Hanson, “The last hope of civilization, law, and order was old Mother England.”"
" ... Reportedly armed with clubs, knives, and hot oil, the mob attacked the Federalists with murderous intent. Lingan was killed while eleven others were severely injured. Henry Lee was thought dead but made a partial recovery until he succumbed to his injuries in 1818. Alexander Hanson was badly injured and died in 1819 at the age of 33. A witness to the riot reported the crowd was shouting, “We’ll root out the damn’d tories. We’ll drink their blood. We’ll eat their hearts.”"
"Despite the preference for volunteers, only about 70,000 participated on the American side during the entire war. The remaining 458,000 soldiers were militiamen."
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November 01, 2022 - November 01, 2022.
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Chapter 4. The Campaign of 1812
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"“The acquisition of Canada this year, as far as the neighborhood of Quebec, will be a mere matter of marching, and will give us experience for the attack of Halifax the next, and the final expulsion of England from the American continent.”
"—Thomas Jefferson"
As despicable as Hitler’s policy and actions were a half a century later, he was merely emulating this!
Hitler wasn't that different, then! On the contrary - in occupying Europe and getting rid of non-German populations (by various means including extermination) thereof only half a century later, he was merely emulating the earlier US policy of expansion for his own, of acquiring a "lebensraum" for Germans!
And for all that, Thomas Jefferson isn't even criticised in UK, US or Europe, while Germans are and quite definitely so, for merely copying UK and US.
Mere racism there?
Doing in Europe to European populations, exactly as was bring done to rest of the world, from India to Africa to Alaska to Ushuaia to Hawaii to Indonesia, was a no-no, because only of race?
As despicable as Hitler’s policy and actions were a half a century later, he was merely emulating a not so much earlier US!
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"After the Revolution, the United States sold all its warships, but in 1794, six frigates were built to fight against privateers from the Barbary State of North Africa. ... "
Author fails to explain why.
Why were US in need of warring against "Barbary State of North Africa"? They weren't in the way of US expansion across continent, and US wasn't colonising any part of Africa.
So. Why were US in need of warring against "Barbary State of North Africa"? Author isn't saying.
Why? Paid by oil money?
Reality is about "privateers from the Barbary State of North Africa" being busy kidnapping European women, and generally women of European descent, from ships plying across Atlantic, especially those travelling from Mediterranean ports, for purposes of breeding, in an effort to whitewash the progeny.
Hence the germination of US navy.
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" ... In 1812, there were four classes of vessels in use: the sloop with one mast and one deck; the brig with two masts and one deck; the frigate with three masts and two decks; and the man-of-war—or ship of the line—with multiple masts and decks. The United States had no ships of the line. At the beginning of the war, the American Navy counted only nine frigates, including the heavy frigate Constitution, and the remainder of their ships in smaller classes, although different sources vary in the exact number.
" ... Royal Navy listed approximately 140,000 seamen on wages, of whom 31,000 were trained marines. The Americans, on the other hand, had 5,000 seamen and 1,000 marines. But Royal Navy ships suffered from a lack of manpower for which the hated policy of impressment was their best solution. Impressed sailors could be expected to lack loyalty. American shipboard conditions were no better, but many sailors came from coastal communities and were experienced on merchant, whaling, and fishing ships. They were motivated to fight for their freedom to trade, and their officers had practical combat experience against the Barbary States."
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" ... James Madison had hoped to bring the war to an early end. From U.S. Ambassador to Russia, John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams, Madison received the message that the tsar might act as a mediator between the United States and Great Britain. Madison was happy to accept the proposition and sent Albert Gallatin and James Bayard to join Adams as potential commissioners for that purpose in St. Petersburg. However, in September 1812, England was not at all interested in mediation.
"America had planned a four-pronged attack on Canada. As it happened, two of the attacks failed, and two were not launched. ... "
They forget these little details when mentioning the US-Canadian border as the most peaceful international border.
"The 1812 Canadian campaign was a failure for the Americans, but the loss of General Brock was nevertheless a major blow to the British. ... The American fort had been evacuated by its garrison after a bombardment from British batteries the afternoon of the battle and could have been taken."
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November 01, 2022 - November 01, 2022.
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Chapter 5. The Campaign of 1813
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"“You, too, will be driven away from your native land and ancient domains as leaves are driven before the wintry storms. Sleep not longer, O Choctaws and Chickasaws, in false security and delusive hopes. Our broad domains are fast escaping from our grasp.”
"—Tecumseh, Shawnee chief"
The title Gone With The Wind with its heartbreaking inherent meaning and connotations fits them far more.
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"Winchester did not pay attention to warnings of gathering British troops. By early January 22, 600 regulars and 800 Indians attacked. Winchester had placed his guards poorly, and the Americans quickly lost ground. There are several versions of what happened next, but it seems that Winchester’s troops were split and neither part could hold their position. Winchester was captured by Chief Roundhead of the Wyandot, and he surrendered to General Procter in return for protection and aid given to the wounded, but according to eyewitness accounts, 68 of the severely wounded were killed by the warriors. Harrison had not arrived in time.
"The native rationale for killing the prisoners was that the prisoners were too badly injured to march from the battle site in Michigan Territory into Canada where the army needed to go. General Winchester himself was taken into Canada and kept in prison for over a year. The news angered Kentuckians back home, and thousands more from that territory volunteered for military service as a result."
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" ... One incident of the battle that has achieved more importance in recent years was the deliberate explosion of the great munitions magazine set off by the retreating British troops at Fort York. The massive explosion sent rocks, cannonballs, and masses of debris flying into the Americans who were just advancing within range. Recent archaeological excavations of the crater left behind have created a new appreciation for the force of the explosion. ... The explosion was so deadly and destructive that the Americans did not accept it as a normal act of property destruction by a retreating army and sought revenge.
"York was plundered by an outraged U.S. army from April 28 to 30. The buildings of the Legislative Assembly were burned, and the Parliamentary mace of Upper Canada was taken to Washington and not returned until 1934 by President Franklin Roosevelt. The national printing office was destroyed. The American commander, Major General Henry Dearborn, appeared to do little to control his troops’ destructive behavior."
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" ... Noting the danger of the British artillery, Harrison sent word to General Green Clay and his Kentucky militia to come and overrun the British guns. This they did well but disobeyed the orders by chasing the British into the woods where the Kentuckians were ambushed. ... "
"The outcome was a victory for the United States. Tecumseh was a major casualty of this charge, as was Roundhead. Hunger may have played a role in the poor performance of the British regulars. The conflict has been known both as the Battle of the Thames and the Battle of Moraviantown. Along with the events on Lake Erie, it gave control of the Northwest Territories to the United States, and with Tecumseh’s passing, the confederacy dissolved.
"One last engagement of note in 1813 was the battle at Crysler’s Farm on November 11. A British and Canadian force about 60 miles southwest of Montreal defeated a much larger American army. The United States plan to take Montreal had been the primary occupation Secretary of War John Armstrong, Jr. for much of 1813, and one more attempt would be made."
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November 01, 2022 - November 01, 2022.
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Chapter 6. 1814: War in the Balance
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"“I do not believe it would have been possible to have continued [after Napoleon] for the purpose of carrying on an American war.”
"—Prime Minister Robert Jenkinson,
"2nd Earl of Liverpool"
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" ... On August 30, 1813, Creek warriors, calling themselves Red Sticks, had attacked Fort Mims in modern Alabama. Sometimes called a battle and other times a massacre, this conflict killed over 500 soldiers and settlers and 100 warriors. Tensions existed before, but now they were stirred higher and culminated in the March 27, 1814 Battle of Horseshoe Bend.
"The Creek Indians had been trying to adapt to advancing white settlement. Originally a hunting and gathering society, many Creek were adjusting to an agricultural lifestyle including animal herding imposed by restricted settlement areas. Having been exposed to European goods, the Creek resented the government’s limitations on access to imports through official trading stores and the continuing pressure on resources from settlers.
"The Creek were a large, well-organized confederacy of settlements capable of bringing a great many warriors under a collective leadership. In many ways, they were a more formidable but lesser known native opposition to the Americans during the war than Tecumseh’s confederacy in the north. When General Andrew Jackson led his militia against 800 Creek warriors at Horseshoe Bend, he won national attention with a victory that gave the United States a treaty ceding more than 21,000,000 acres of Creek lands."
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" ... The Battle of Chippawa was short but a welcome victory for the Americans as well as a precursor for the Battle of Lundy’s Lane on July 25 when the two armies met again."
" ... Ready for each other with higher stakes, casualties on both sides were much higher than at Chippawa Creek. Riall, Drummond, Scott, and Brown were all badly wounded. Eventually, the exhausted American troops withdrew and were not pursued. Their advance was halted, and they retreated to Fort Erie.
"While armies were approaching Lundy’s Lane in Ontario, William Henry Harrison and Michigan Territory Governor Lewis Cass were negotiating the Treaty of Greenville with American and Canadian tribes, including the Wyandot, Delaware, Shawnee, Seneca, Miami, Potawatomi, Ottawa, and Kickapoo. The United States sought to disconnect these tribes from their British alliances and to obtain promises that no separate peace would be made by them with Britain. In return for “the faithful performance of the conditions of this treaty, the United States will confirm and establish all the boundaries between their lands and those of the Wyandots, Delawares, Shawanoese, and Miamies, as they existed previously to the commencement of the war,” signed by all parties on July 22, 1814."
Did they know what they signed?
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"British General Drummond’s first efforts in the siege of Fort Erie began on August 3 but not until the night of August 15 was a direct assault mounted. ... "
"Britain began planning naval strikes down the eastern American coast. Rear Admiral George Cockburn had already been raiding the Chesapeake region, and Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane was sent in support. In Washington, a worried Madison called a Cabinet meeting on July 1, but Secretary of War Armstrong insisted that the capital was an unlikely target although Baltimore might be in danger. Armstrong gave military command of the region to the inexperienced Brigadier General William Winder who proceeded uncertainly.
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"A brigade of Napoleonic war veterans under Major General Robert Ross arrived on August 15. Contrary to Armstrong’s expectations, the British forces aimed for Bladensburg, Maryland near the District of Columbia on August 24. The point of battle was so near to Washington that both Monroe and Madison initially went to the scene. The weather was sultry and threatening. Winder’s militiamen were not prepared for the blast of the British artillery, and they did not know how to withdraw in an orderly fashion. When the line broke, it collapsed. Later commentators sarcastically referred to the retreat as the “Bladensburg Races.” Madison and his contingent barely stayed ahead of the retreat. By evening, the British reached D.C. Among the buildings burned, in retaliation for the American treatment of York, were the Capitol, the Executive Mansion, and the Treasury Building.
"First Lady Dolley Madison did not leave the presidential home until the last moment when she received the news of the battlefield defeat as Ross and Cockburn marched on Washington. Although she had wisely already packed all of the important state papers into the carriages standing ready to flee, Mrs. Madison is most famous for having thought only at the last moment to save the Gilbert Stuart portrait of George Washington."
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" ... For two days after the burning of Washington, hurricane-force storms impeded the armies and all travelers as they both headed toward Maryland. Madison, having first attempted for Maryland, heard that the British had left Washington and therefore summoned his cabinet on August 27 to join him in D.C. Mrs. Madison also returned and went to live in the home of her sister and brother-in-law until she could arrange a house for her and the president."
" ... The British believed that Baltimore was the seat for many of the American privateers, and therefore, an assault on Baltimore was the next objective. The assault by land would approach under Ross’s command via North Point while the naval attack under Cochrane aimed for Fort McHenry."
" ... Witnessing the overnight bombardment of Fort McHenry, which lasted 25 hours, Francis Scott Key was moved to write the words that would become the lyrics for the American national anthem."
" ... With these battles, Britain and the United States were ready to begin discussing a treaty of peace at Ghent, Belgium."
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November 01, 2022 - November 01, 2022.
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Chapter 7. Final Conflict and Peace
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" ... By December, Federalists decided to call delegates from the northern states to attend a convention to discuss “Mr. Madison’s War.” In particular, they were concerned about the president’s ability to bring all of the states into a war that some opposed. On December 15, delegates from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Vermont met at Hartford, Connecticut. New Hampshire and Vermont, however, did not choose to join in an official capacity.
"The participants included some of the most influential men of New England. ... Madison sent a regiment to Hartford pretending to collect recruits but in fact trying to gather information."
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"The Hartford Convention delegates did not know that while they were meeting, a peace treaty was at last achieving completion in Ghent. As the fortunes of war had shifted in 1814, the negotiations had changed course, but news traveled slowly across the Atlantic. Meanwhile Britain encountered trouble with Russia at the Congress of Vienna over ending the Napoleonic conflict and became more eager to get the North American discussion out of the way."
"The British and American negotiating teams signed and sealed the treaty in Belgium on December 24, 1814. It was approved by Parliament and the prince regent in London on December 30. General Andrew Jackson did not hear of it until after he had fought the Battle of New Orleans in January 1815. General Pakenham, the leader of the British forces at New Orleans, had been warned secretly through channels that a treaty was in progress, but he was killed in the same battle on January 8. The treaty took weeks to reach America by ship, and it was not ratified by the United States Senate until February 17, 1815."
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November 01, 2022 - November 01, 2022.
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Conclusion
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" ... Napoleon escaped from his prison on Elba on February 26, 1815, and Britain had no more time for North America. In fact, Britain was very annoyed with the United States. For years Britain had been fighting the major threat of Napoleon while Madison and their old colonies had been such a nuisance. Britain never expended more than seven percent of its military effort in the American war and afterward barely seemed to acknowledge that it happened. Their only real goal had been to keep Canada intact. Success achieved.
"The Canadians were relieved that they were still a separate colony with their own identity. If anything, the war had given them an identity. Canadian communities had been burned and looted by American troops during the war, and although time healed all wounds, Canadians felt they had successfully stood their ground against their southern neighbor. It was also a benefit that the Canadian economy had gained a wartime boost. Life was good.
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"The combatants who lost everything in the War of 1812 were the native tribes. They had hoped to win an agreement to keep their lands and peoples intact, to not be forced into further westward migrations, altered economies, or marginalization, but although the British made some effort to keep their promise to Tecumseh, the American negotiators at Ghent were not interested in hearing about making land concessions to the Indians. The conversation was soon dropped and forgotten with no further thought of giving representation to the Native Americans. By the end of the war, American possession of Indian lands had greatly increased, and the push for westward expansion amplified. No one cared to consider the costs to the Native Americans."
" ... As the War Hawk generation matured, it faced the much more complicated and dangerous rising tide of civil war over slavery. Although they could not put out that conflagration, years of compromises attempted to postpone it. The one lesson that was not learned for a very long time was when a country is built on equality, it cannot function without including all the people living within its borders."
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November 01, 2022 - November 01, 2022.
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War of 1812: A History
From Beginning to End
Hourly History
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October 31, 2022 - November 01, 2022. .
Purchased October 31, 2022.
ASIN:- B07BRHRDVR
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War of 1812: A History
From Beginning to End
Hourly History
October 31, 2022 - October 31, 2022.
Purchased October 31, 2022.
ASIN:- B07BRHRDVR
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https://www.goodreads.com/review/show/5076991561
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