Alexander the Great: A Life From Beginning to End (Military Biographies) Hourly History.

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Alexander the Great: A Life From Beginning to End (Military Biographies) Hourly History”

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"Alexander’s body was laid to rest in the Egyptian city of Alexandria. This city would be, by far, the most famous of all the Alexandrias which were founded during the Macedonians ten-year expansion through the known world. Alexandria would become a beacon of education, philosophy, and knowledge until the burning of the great library there."

The said great library was burned by Christians, which this book omits mentioning.

"When the Romans invaded Greece two hundred years after Alexander’s death, they absorbed Grecian culture into their own, as Alexander had done throughout his career. Thus the stories and legends of Alexander were spread further, carried by the Romans into the furthest corners of their empire."

The authors do not discuss similarities and differences between Alexander and, say, Attila the Hun, or Chingiz Khan.

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Table of Contents

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Introduction

The Genius of Philip of Macedon

Alexander, King of Macedon

Conquest of Persia

Syria and Egypt

Gaugamela and King of Asia

India

The Death of Alexander

Conclusion

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REVIEW

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Introduction

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"Alexander the Great conquered almost all of the known world of his time. There is virtually no other ruler of the ancient or modern world who can make this claim. By the time of his death, Alexander ruled a domain that encompassed the Mediterranean, the Aegean, Asia Minor (modern Turkey), Syria, Egypt, Persia, and India. The extent of the world during this era was thought to be the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Sahara to the south, India to the east, and barbarian wastelands to the north. Alexander’s domains reached these boundaries in all directions except India. What makes his story more remarkable is that he achieved this in a ten-year reign which ended when he was just thirty-two."

But wasn't Attila the Hun before Alexander? Wasn't he from Mongolia? Wasn't therefore Mongolia known, and also China?

"Alexander was characterized by an insatiable desire for conquest, not just for the sake of power, but to be immortal. He openly claimed to be a descendant of Hercules, and therefore Zeus. He modeled himself on Achilles and expressed the desire from a young age to prove himself the greatest man of his age. He was the son of a man who, except for Alexander, would have been remembered as one of the great men of his own era. Alexander is seen lamenting his father’s success, feeling that he was being left nothing to achieve for himself.

"In the decade in which Alexander marched steadily eastwards in pursuit of his conquests, he could be seen taking the hard road apparently in order to test himself. He can be seen leading his army over the shepherd’s path at the Persian Gates, after being told this was impassable for an army; or through the hellish Gedrosian desert to return to Persia from India; or leaping into an Indian fortress to fight its defenders single-handedly as an example to his men. Time and again Alexander puts himself to the test and emerges victorious. In doing so, he inspired terror and awe amongst his enemies."

"He also inspired loyalty in his soldiers, and this would become the perfect companion to his undoubted tactical and strategic genius. Alexander could not have achieved what he did without the support and loyalty of his army. He secured this by tending their wounds for them, through skillful oratory, and by leading from the front. Only at the very end, far from home after ten years of constant warfare did his soldiers turn against him."

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September 17, 2022 - September 17, 2022.

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The Genius of Philip of Macedon

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"“My son, ask for thyself another kingdom, for that which I leave is too small for thee.”

"—Philip II of Macedon to his son Alexander"

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"The ancient kingdom of Macedonia was one of rich, fertile lands and high mountains. To the north, south, and west it was encircled by mountains, and to the east by the Aegean Sea and Asia Minor. Mount Olympus was visible among the peaks to the south, and the Macedonian royals claimed direct descent from the gods. Life in Macedonia could be rugged, and the kingdom was surrounded by enemies and potential foes. The mounted warriors of Thessaly lay to the south, the barbarian tribes of Agrianians and Paeonians to the north, while the Illyrians lured in the west. It was to prove a testing ground for soldiers, producing the tough Macedonian phalanx that would be so effective in battle under Alexander and his father.

"Alexander of Macedon took the kingdom of Macedonia and made it a world power, at the heart of an empire that stretched from Greece to India. But to build his empire, he stood on the shoulders of another Macedonian, his father, Philip. It was Philip who devised the weapon of the Macedonian phalanx that would prove so effective in battle after battle, and who secured the power base in Macedonia that would be Alexander’s springboard. To tell the story of Alexander the Great, it is necessary to tell the story of Philip first.

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"When Philip was fifteen years old, he was dispatched to the Greek city of Thebes as a royal hostage. This practice was commonplace and used as a means of securing peace between states and a guarantee that treaties made would be respected and held to. Philip spent the next three years in the household of the Theban general Pammenes. It was there that he was able to observe the tactics of Greek hoplite warfare.

"The Greek hoplite was armed with a bronze helmet and shield, which was carried in the left hand. In the right hand the primary weapon of the hoplite was held, a ten-foot spear. This left the hoplite exposed and vulnerable on their right-hand side. As a result of this weakness, each man in the Theban ranks was forced to rely on his neighbor to cover that dangerously unprotected right side. The effect of this inter-dependence between members of the formation was that they acted as one cohesive unit.

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"When Philip returned to Macedonia, he found that his brother, Perdiccas, had seized the throne. When Perdiccas was killed in battle with the Illyrians, it left a dangerous power vacuum. The Illyrians were invading from the west and the Paeonians from the north. Philip fought his way to the throne, killing or arranging the deaths of five rival claimants. Amongst these were two nobles with the backing of foreign powers, one by Thrace (to the northeast of Macedonia), and the other from Athens.

"Philip persuaded both the Athenians and the Thracians to end their support for his rivals, to such a great extent in fact, that the Thracians killed their candidate for him. He then either exiled or executed any further opponents, becoming King of Macedonia in 359 BCE. As ruling king, Philip began to train the Macedonians in the ways of hoplite warfare. However the Macedonians couldn’t afford bronze for shields, so Philip improvised. He extended the length of the Macedonian spear, the “sarissa,” to eighteen feet and gave his men smaller wooden shields to enable them to handle the longer spear. This ability to adapt to circumstances was one of the factors which helped Philip establish a solid power base over his Greek neighbors, and it is a trait his son would demonstrate time and again in his own career.

"When his men were ready to be tested in their new tactics Philip sought out battle. Bardylis of the Illyrians offered peace when he first saw the sarissas and cohesive units of the Macedonian infantry. Wanting to test his troops above all, Philip ignored the proposal and engaged in battle. It turned out to be a success. Philip conquered Illyria and Thrace to secure his northern borders. He would continue his empire building, expanding Macedonian borders and adding more and more towns, cities, and peoples to his thrall.

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"Alexander was born in the summer of 356 BCE to Philip and his wife Olympias, who was to become a lifelong friend and advisor to her son. Because Alexander had not been born into a remote, backwater kingdom of farmers and shepherds, he was able to receive the kind of education a future king would need. Philip’s army had no shortage of veterans who could educate Alexander in the tactics his father and his generals had pioneered. As he grew up, he would be exposed to ambassadors and exiles from the Persian court in order to build a picture of the Persian people and their ruler, Darius II. All of this knowledge would have been of benefit to a young king who would go on to follow in his father’s footsteps. This would have been impossible had Philip not established himself and Macedonia as such a powerhouse of the Greek world.

"Alexander was tutored in his youth from about 343 BCE by Aristotle, the former student of Plato. For this good fortune Alexander, again, had his father’s power and fame to thank. Aristotle had been raised as a royal hostage in Pella, the capital of Macedonia, and had then risen to be regarded as the natural successor to Plato as the head of the Academy. However, he was thwarted in this by another philosopher, Demosthenes, and driven into exile. Demosthenes was a vocal opponent of Philip of Macedon, and this antipathy was behind his exile of Aristotle. So, Philip’s enemies helped turn Aristotle into Alexander’s life. In doing so, they gave the young prince a tutor who would be remembered by history as one of the foremost men of learning of his era.

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"Aristotle encouraged Alexander to be curious and to investigate the world around him. Throughout his life, Alexander would show himself to be a man who constantly sought out new ways of doing things; who experimented and explored. He would refuse to be limited by the conventional views of empire, always seeking new worlds to conquer. This talent for innovation was something that was clearly instilled in Alexander from boyhood.

"Another facet of Alexander’s success which was cemented early in his life was the loyalty of his lieutenants. Alexander’s empire building strategy was very simple. Conquer—and then leave a garrison under the command of a loyal man to rule while Alexander and the rest of the army moved on. To achieve this, Alexander needed people around him whose loyalty was absolute. It was his boyhood companions that provided this unreserved commitment. These were men such as Hephaestion, Alexander’s constant companion and a man who was once mistaken for Alexander himself; Ptolemy, who would rule as pharaoh of Egypt as Alexander’s regent; and Marsyas, later Alexander’s biographer and one of the men who helped his liege lord’s legend live on into history.

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"One event from Alexander’s childhood sums up his talents more than anything else. In 343 BCE, a Thessalonian horse breeder brought before Philip a magnificent stallion named Bucephalus. The mount proved to be skittish and was declared unmanageable by Philip and rejected. Alexander, however, proclaimed that his father was wrong, Bucephalus could be ridden. Philip challenged his son to back up his words or pay the full price charged for the horse, clearly thinking to teach his twelve-year-old son a lesson in humility. What Philip had not appreciated was that Alexander had been quietly watching the horse’s behavior and realized that the animal became restless when faced with the noise of the crowd that had gathered, as well as its own shadow.

"Alexander turned Bucephalus to face into the sun and away from the crowd. No longer disturbed by the noise and no longer able to see his shadow, Bucephalus became manageable, and Alexander was able to ride him. This incident gave Alexander what was to be his closest friend in the world and the only horse he would ride into battle. It also demonstrated his talent for what we would now call lateral thinking, or thinking outside of the box. This talent would be seen continually in the conquests to come."

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September 17, 2022 - September 17, 2022.

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Alexander, King of Macedon

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"“He is leaving me no worlds to conquer.”

"—Alexander to his friends on the subject of his father’s success"

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"As Alexander reached his young manhood, Philip was becoming more and more powerful. When his empire-building pulled him from Pella, Alexander began to be left in charge of the kingdom. The first such occasion was the Byzantine rebellion against Philip in 340 BCE. Alexander was named regent in Philip’s stead and immediately faced a revolt of his own from the Maedi tribes of Thrace in northern Macedonia.

"Upon hearing news of the Maedi’s pillaging of the Strymon valley, Alexander met them in battle and over the course of a few weeks utterly annihilated them. He created a new Macedonia colony in their homelands including a new city which he named after himself, Alexandropolis. It was a successful strategy—to suppress a native population and replace it with loyal supporters—and one that Alexander would use again. It was also characteristic that he put his stamp on his conquests, leaving his name behind him as a reminder."

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"Upon Philip’s return, Alexander was given another opportunity to prove his worth as a soldier and commander of troops in the field. Philip had long suffered from rebellions which originated in Athens. There, one of his most vocal opponents was Demosthenes, who preached anti-Phillip rhetoric. Deciding once and for all to cut out the poisonous nest of intrigue that the Athenian-led Greek city-states represented, Philip engineered a war against Athens.

"In August 338 BCE, the Athenians and Thebans allied to face the Macedonia hordes of Philip at Chaeronea. Their combined force included the legendary Sacred Band of Thebes. Philip decided to put eighteen-year-old Alexander in charge of crushing the Sacred Band. During the battle, the Greeks lined up across the Chaeronea valley, while the Macedonians angled their forces to the Greek left. As the two armies met, the Macedonian left pulled back as though retreating from the Greek right wing. The Greek army turned to face the isolated Macedonian right, pushing forward until a gap opened in their own lines. At this point, Alexander led his cavalry through the hole to surround the Greeks. The Sacred Band fought to the last man and were honored by being buried in the field, with a monument to mark their resting place which survives to this day."

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" ... As Philip looked to Persia for his next conquest, he needed to be able to turn his back on his son and heir.

"The distance growing between father and son can be seen in the fact that Philip briefly exiled Alexander and his mother after divorcing Olympias and remarrying. Before beginning his campaign to recapture Greek cities seized by the Persians, Philip was prevailed upon to bring Alexander back from exile to rule Macedonia in his place. On the eve of the beginning of Philip’s Persian campaign, he held celebrations in which his allies were invited to renew their oaths of allegiance, and the Hellenic world could marvel at the wealth and power of Macedonia. During the games held as part of this celebration in 336 BCE, Philip was assassinated.

"There are many conspiracy theories as to the culprits behind the murder, including Philip’s former wife, Olympias. But the result was beyond dispute. Alexander was the heir apparent. He secured his throne by killing his rivals and securing the support of those of Philip’s generals who he felt he could trust. Initially, these were Antipater and Parmenion. With Antipater, Alexander spoke to the Macedonian army. He won them over with rhetoric, securing their loyalty by telling them of their unrivaled prowess, and the wealth and glory which he would enable them to win. It was another presage of a technique which Alexander would use time and time again. The Macedonian army was the backbone of the throne and Alexander would prove himself a master at winning their love and loyalty.

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"On the death of Philip, the Greek city-states rebelled from Macedonian rule, led by Athens, Thebes, and Thessaly. Alexander outflanked them all by moving against Greece without first waiting to consolidate his rule in Macedonia. The Thessalonians blocked the road in the Vale of Tempe, apparently expecting to delay Alexander. The young king simply instructed his engineers to build a new road that would circumvent the blockage and allow his army to continue its rapid advance. Upon seeing Alexander’s unhalted advance, the Thessalonians chose to surrender.

"In Thebes, there was a general expectation that there was no threat from Alexander, at least for a time. As a result, the Thebans woke one morning to find the Macedonian army surrounding them. Subsequently, the Athenians heard of the surrender of both Thessaly and Thebes while their city walls were still in a state of disrepair. They panicked and offered peace and oaths of loyalty.

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"Having suppressed the military opposition to his hegemony, Alexander called a meeting of the League of Corinth. There he paid an actor to impersonate an emissary from the city of Ephesus. This was a Hellenic city in Asia Minor, under Persian occupation. The actor begged for the aid of the Hellenes in freeing his people, and the League of Corinth unanimously pledged their support. In short order, and with no losses to his own men, Alexander secured the allegiance of the Greeks and their support for his Persian conquest. By moving with such speed, he obtained Thessalian cavalry for his army and the services of the Athenian navy, regarded as the most powerful in the world.

"Upon his return from the League of Corinth to Pella, Alexander made a detour to meet a renowned Greek philosopher named Diogenes. He was well known for his belief that men should live close to nature and so lived his life in a barrel. Alexander sought out Diogenes and found him sunbathing beside his barrel. Diogenes, ignoring Alexander, refused to recognize his royal visitor. Finally, Alexander asked him what he wanted most in the world, and that Alexander would grant him anything he wished. His response was that he wished Alexander to move out of the way of the sun. There are men in Alexander’s life who lost their own for speaking to him rudely, even if only in jest. Alexander had a quick temper and the capacity to kill a man in his anger, even if he immediately regretted it afterward. But Alexander had also been raised with a healthy respect for philosophers and poets, and Diogenes was excused his rudeness by the king. This incident demonstrates a side to Alexander that would not be obvious very much through his life.

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"From 336 to 334 BCE, Alexander would be occupied suppressing rebellions against Macedonian rule. First, countering a barbarian uprising in the north, then Greek revolts in the south. Alexander would demonstrate his ingenuity in these campaigns. Against the Triballi, who had a tactic of rolling carts from high ground to break the formation of the Macedonian phalanx, Alexander ordered his men to lie flat on the ground with shields linked to form a roadway over which the carts could pass. The Triballi fled on seeing this method.

"Upon reaching the Danube River, Alexander had his men sew up their tents and fill them with hay to create floats with which to cross the water. Thus he was able to surprise the Getae and rout them. At the site of Pelium, Alexander was faced with a difficult tactical conundrum. The city was defended and would only be taken by a siege. The Illyrians held the hills around the city and would surround his army if they attempted such an attack. Alexander had to find a way to break both the city and the Illyrian army in the hills.

"He began by having his phalanx carry out parade drills in utter silence in the early morning. On the plains before Pelium, they would have been in full view of the city’s defenders and the army on the high ground above the city. The Macedonians were well versed in their sarissa drills and were able to move as one man. With the eighteen-foot spears they carried and the silence in which they performed their maneuvers, it would have been an unnerving sight to those contemplating battle against them. Finally, Alexander had his men beat their shields and give a battle cry. The effect on the Illyrians was pure terror; they fled, freeing Alexander to take the city without fear of attack. This was a demonstration early in his career of Alexander’s ability to think outside of the box. It also demonstrated his astute awareness of psychological warfare."

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September 17, 2022 - September 17, 2022.

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Conquest of Persia

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"“We are free men, they are slaves . . . they will be fighting for pay . . . we, on the contrary, shall fight for Greece, and our hearts will be in it.”

"—Alexander to his troops on the eve of the Battle of Issus, as quoted by Arrian"

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"In the spring of 334 BCE, Alexander left his trusted general Antipater in charge of Macedonia and began his Persian campaign. He crossed the Hellespont into Asia Minor, modern day Turkey. The Persian emperor, Darius II, did not at this point recognize Alexander of Macedon as a legitimate threat to his forces. Thus, the Persian navy in the Aegean Sea didn’t attack the Macedonian fleet that crossed the Hellespont. Instead, the Persian army met the Macedonians at the Granicus River at the town of Zelea.

"The Persian army was commanded by a Greek mercenary named Memnon of Rhodes. With his typical intelligence, Alexander ordered that Memnon’s lands and possessions be protected as his army advanced through the Satrapy of Phrygia (a satrap being a Persian noble title, and satrapy the lands under that noble’s rule). By this means he wanted the Persians to look with suspicion on their able Greek general, believing him to be in secret league with the Macedonians. He also refused to allow his men to pillage farms and villages, in order to secure the peaceful surrender and goodwill of cities such as Lampsacus.

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"The Persians chose their battleground because of the steep banks of the river, which would neutralize the effectiveness of the Macedonian phalanx. Parmenion urged Alexander to cross the small river upstream and fight the Persians on the east side of the Granicus. Alexander, however, wanted to show his military prowess and courage. He was young and headstrong and decided to fight. This was what the Persians had hoped he would do, but Alexander’s means of fighting took them by surprise. He lined up his men with cavalry on either flank of the infantry. The Persians reinforced their left flank, which was the side of their army facing Alexander. They assumed that the strongest attack would fall on the side where Alexander was located. They were right, but Alexander’s speed was their undoing. As he paraded up and down in front of his men, exhorting them to their best, a trumpet sounded the charge. Alexander and his cavalry attacked in the center.

"He broke a hole in the Persian lines, putting himself at personal risk in doing so. The infantry poured through and split the Persian army. They were dispelled, and Alexander had secured his first victory over the forces of Darius II. In the aftermath of the battle, Alexander went among the wounded and tended to them. He had been taught medicine by Aristotle as a boy and tending to his own men would become a tradition. This was one of the reasons the Macedonians loyalty to Alexander would be so unshakeable, and they would end up going above and beyond for him.

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"As he moved through the towns and cities of Asia Minor, he left behind him governments loyal to him. Hellenic cities were allowed to continue as they had, with their loyalty and taxes going to the League of Corinth instead of Persia. Persian satrapies were not forced to adopt Greek or Macedonian laws or customs. The only changes Alexander made was to replace their existing satraps with men of his own choosing. By showing that he had no desire to change their culture, traditions, or religions, his reputation preceded him and many surrendered without fighting, such as the city of Sardis. Thus, as Alexander advanced, he didn’t have to worry about the revolt of oppressed citizens behind him. He wanted to be seen as a liberator and appears to have achieved this status, based on the eagerness of many to welcome his rule.

"Alexander advanced down the Aegean coast of Asia Minor. To place this in modern terms, he was traveling around the south-western coast of Turkey. Parmenion urged him to fight a naval battle in order to eliminate the threat of the Persian navy. Alexander resisted this advice. He was not as capable as a naval commander, as on land. Instead, he sought to deny the navy their Aegean harbors. This meant capturing first Miletus and then the mighty fortress of Halicarnassus. Alexander secured this important territory by befriending the dethroned queen of Halicarnassus, Ada. In fact, Alexander came to call her “mother” and was adopted into her family. When Halicarnassus fell to the Macedonians after a war of attrition against forces commanded by Memnon of Rhodes, Alexander restored Ada to her throne. His position as her adopted son meant that the satrapy of Caria, of which Halicarnassus was part, would fall to him on her death.

"Since crossing the Hellespont, Alexander had worked his way south along the coast. Now he turned away from the sea into the satrapy of Phrygia in search of a legend. Within these lands lay another propaganda opportunity for Alexander. In the town of Gordium, near modern-day Ankara, was a knotted rope and a legend that the man who was able to untie it would rule all of Asia. Alexander took a typically direct and unexpected route to solve this problem. Having inspected the knot for a time, he drew his sword and slashed it open. The incident of the Gordian Knot is yet another example of Alexander’s understanding of both psychological warfare and propaganda. The fact that the event is remembered more than two thousand years after his death demonstrates how effectively he used his mythos."

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September 17, 2022 - September 17, 2022.

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Syria and Egypt

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"Having conquered Asia Minor, Alexander led his men south through the Taurus Mountains and into Syria. The next major battle of Alexander’s career came in the spring of 333 BCE. Darius had lost his trusted Greek general Memnon to disease and then executed his replacement as punishment for speaking disrespectfully of Persian soldiers compared with the Greeks. Having deprived himself of any effective generals, Darius now took command of his own army. He led a force estimated to be approximately sixty thousand strong out of Babylon taking them west to meet Alexander.

"Darius managed to get his force behind Alexander as they each tried to find the other. Alexander found himself cut off from Greece, Asia Minor, and all the reinforcements and supplies that entailed. Darius had arrayed his force on the north bank of the Pinarus River, south of the village of Issus. He chose to locate his army between hills to the east and the sea to the west, thus nullifying the two-to-one advantage he had by constricting his forces in that way.

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"The Battle of Issus was fought on November 5, 333 BCE. As at Granicus, Alexander’s speed was his greatest advantage. Leading his cavalry, he was able to cross the river and engage the enemy before the Persian archers could be brought to bear. Creating a hole in the Persian line, Alexander and his cavalry were able to surround the Greek mercenaries. The mercenaries collapsed and fled, breaking the Persian center. Alexander had won again. He tried to kill Darius on the field, and then pursued him off the field but was unable to capture him. Alexander did, however, succeed in seizing the royal household consisting of Darius’ mother, wife, daughter, and son. Alexander ordered that they receive royal treatment and not be harmed. In doing so, he demonstrated his mercy to the Persian people, while also ensuring an association in their minds between Alexander and the royal family."

This explains lack of hostility in India against Alexander and his gorges, whose behaviour was not uncivilised as that of subsequent barbarians faced by India, who destroyed temples, libraries, universities, and butchered thousands of Hindus and Buddhiss, especially scholars, apart from killings and abductions of civilians, a strict no-no in a highly civilised India.

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"Following his victory at Issus, the first direct victory over Darius, Alexander spent the next year conquering Syria on his way to Egypt. To achieve this feat, he had to capture the city of Tyre, which was located on an offshore island. They refused to surrender because of their strong position. Alexander’s solution was to build a causeway out of timber and rubble to allow his catapults and siege towers to come within range of the walls. The first such causeway was burned down by the Tyrian use of a fireship. Ever determined, Alexander simply began again, this time reaching the walls and eventually penetrating them. The siege of Tyre demonstrates Alexander’s ingenuity but also his sheer dogged determination. As at Halicarnassus, Alexander’s triumph owes as much towards his refusal to give in as his military prowess.

"Having conquered Syria, the Macedonians continued their southward advance into Egypt. Alexander’s reason for his march south, while Darius lay to the east in Babylon, was religious. Alexander, like many of the ancient Greeks, had a deep belief in the power of the gods. Alexander, like Philip before him, claimed descent from the demi-gods of legend, such as Hercules. Alexander also knew that in their conquest of Egypt the Persians had alienated the people by tearing down their religions. Alexander embraced them.

"As a result, the satrap of Egypt, Mazaces, surrendered the vast province and its enormous wealth without a fight. Alexander showed all due respect to the Egyptian gods, making sacrifices and prayers to them as he made a procession along the Nile. He then went on a march into the desert in search of the village of Siwa and the oracle of the god Ammon. Having suffered great hardship, he reached the oracle and asked, amongst other questions, if his destiny was to be master of the world. The oracle answered in the affirmative. From this point, Alexander styled himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon. His already unshakeable confidence had now received a divine blessing."

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September 17, 2022 - September 17, 2022.

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Gaugamela and King of Asia

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"After securing Egypt, Alexander returned to the pursuit of Darius. As Alexander had been advancing through Syria and Egypt, Darius had been in communication with him. His first message contained a deal that may have been acceptable to the generals and soldiers of the army. Alexander destroyed it and fabricated a new message, one in which “Darius” insulted the Macedonian soldiers and commanders. He was able to publicly reject this message with impunity. Another letter offered the hand of his daughter in marriage and the lands west of the Euphrates. Alexander was urged to accept, but he refused. It was becoming clear that Alexander would welcome nothing less than everything Darius had, but most importantly the title King of Asia.

"Alexander left behind Syria, with its Mediterranean coast and went into the desert to cross into Mesopotamia and Assyria (modern day Iraq). On September 30, 331 BCE, Alexander and his Macedonians faced the mighty Persian army across the plain of Gaugamela, not far from the Tigris. Despite the losses of his territory west of the Euphrates, Darius still had vast reserves of men to call upon from the rest of his empire. The Persian army at Gaugamela was an estimated hundred thousand men, outnumbering the Macedonians two-to-one. Alexander drew up his men close to the Persian lines in the evening, letting the Persians think he meant to launch a night attack. As a result, the Persians were forced to stay awake in their armor all night while Alexander and the Macedonians slept.

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"On October 1, 331 BCE, the battle commenced. Once again, Alexander and his cavalry lined up to the right in the Macedonian formation with Parmenion on the left. In the center were the feared Macedonian infantry in their phalanx formations. Alexander turned the Persian advantage of numbers against them. As Darius attacked the Macedonian left, and his general Bessus charged on the Macedonian right (following Alexander), the Persian lines became stretched. The Macedonian flanks pulled back, and the Persians pushed forward. Alexander rode to his right, his maneuver mirrored by Bessus. Then, in an attempt to encircle him, Bessus overtook Alexander. At that point, Alexander turned and rushed directly into the Persian lines, smashing a hole in their ranks.

"It was both a repetitious strategy, essentially the same as that which had won him victory at Issus and Granicus, but with innovations introduced that took the enemy by surprise. In this case, the surprise was Alexander’s instruction to Parmenion that he pull his flanks in, forcing more and more Persian troops to be dispatched from the center to complete the encirclement while Alexander stretched them in the other direction until a hole appeared in the lines.

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"Once again, Darius fled the destruction of his army. And once again Alexander was forced to abandon the pursuit, this time to rescue Parmenion whose troops were facing destruction on the left flank. But to escape, Darius fled into the wastelands of Bactria, in the north-east of his domain. Many of his officers began to desert when faced with the hardships of their passage compared to the wealth and luxury they had become accustomed to.

"Alexander meanwhile was moving south through Assyria towards two of the principal capitals of the Persian Empire—Babylon and Susa. Both were surrendered to him without battle, towards the end of 331 BCE. Alexander and his men enjoyed the unparalleled riches of these cities, with Alexander further cementing his closeness to the royal line by ensuring that Darius’ captured family were reinstated to their palaces in Susa. The Macedonians then moved on into Persia itself. Alexander knew that he would never be able to claim the title of King of Asia while Darius lived.

"Leaving behind the desert heat of Mesopotamia, the Macedonians traveled east into the high mountains that guarded Persia’s western boundary. There they encountered the Uxians, a hostile mountain tribe that Darius had never been able to tame. Instead, Darius had paid the Uxians in gold for allowing his people to pass through the mountains. Characteristically, Alexander refused to do this. He, after all, was Macedonian and well versed in mountain warfare. He led his forces through the mountains and slaughtered anyone they come across until the Uxians pleaded for peace.

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"After resting his men and sacking the city of Persepolis, Alexander continued his pursuit of Darius into Media, in the north of the Persian Empire. During the chase, he learned that Darius had been arrested by his general Bessus who was now calling himself the High King of Persia. Darius was found, chained to a cart and dying. Alexander saw to it that Darius was buried with all military honors. Alexander was now presented with a problem. His army believed their objectives had been fulfilled. Persia was conquered, Darius was dead, and Philip had been avenged. But Alexander knew that while Bessus lived and claimed the title High King, he could not stop. Alexander wanted to ceremonially take on the mantle of the High King and felt he had been denied this by Bessus’ murder of Darius. He changed the minds of his men through his oratory; using logic, reason, and high emotion to bring them around to his way of thinking.

"The pursuit of Bessus, through the Hindu Kush into modern day Afghanistan was arduous in the extreme. The Macedonians had to contend with baking heat and little water as they moved through the wastelands of Bactria, where Alexander chose to take a shortcut through fifty miles of desert, as well as the freezing conditions and thin air of the high mountain passes. Wherever possible, Alexander sought to outmaneuver Bessus and come upon his enemy from an unexpected direction, no matter the suffering of his men. Finally, Bessus was betrayed by one of his own commanders. He was delivered to Alexander and ultimately met his death at the hands of Darius’ family. Five years after becoming king of Macedonia, Alexander had conquered the mightiest empire of his world. Alas, it wasn’t enough."

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September 17, 2022 - September 17, 2022.

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India

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"In Alexander’s time, the known world extended as far as the easternmost point of India. There was no knowledge of China or any country east of India. Similarly, it was believed that there was nothing beyond the great desert to the south and west of Egypt, and nothing beyond the ocean that lay west of the Mediterranean. Alexander had once bemoaned that his father’s successes were denying him worlds to conquer for himself. Now, having conquered most of the rest of his world, he wished to add the final piece to his possession, India."

Again, wasn't Attila the Hun before Alexander?

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"But before he could embark on this new campaign, he was faced with rebellion in the furthest reaches of his Persian territories, namely Bactria and Sogdiana. Bactria lay amongst the Hindu Kush in what is now Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Alexander had chased Bessus through Bactria, and Bessus’ flight from Bactria to Sogdiana had proved to be his undoing. A Sogdian lord named Spitamenes did not trust the self-proclaimed High King after he had abandoned Bactria without giving battle. So he had him arrested and sent to Alexander.

"This did not mean that Spitamenes was acknowledging Alexander’s right to rule his country though. He promptly led a guerilla war against the Macedonians. Spitamenes was eventually betrayed by his own wife who desired to return to her home. After cutting off his head, the wife gave it as a gift to Alexander. All that remained to bring Sogdiana into line was to capture the fortress known as the Sogdian Rock. Surrounded by high cliffs, the fortress was believed to be impregnable. Alexander arrived at the Sogdian Rock in 327 BCE. The Bactrian leader Oxyartes taunted Alexander that in order to take the Rock he would need to find soldiers who could fly.

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"Alexander asked for the best mountaineers in his army to volunteer and sent three hundred to scale the sheer cliffs at night. In the morning, Alexander sent a message to the Rock’s defenders stating, “Look up.” They did and saw Macedonian troops in the mountains above them. Alexander, it appeared, had found soldiers who could fly. The Rock surrendered, and with it, the remaining rebellious mountain towns and cities of Sogdiana relented to Alexander.

"After the fall of the Rock, Alexander met Roxanne. She was the beautiful daughter of the Bactrian leader Oxyartes and had been sent to the fortress by her father. Alexander is reputed to have fallen in love with Roxanne and subsequently married her. Earlier in his life, Alexander had said that he had little interest in sex, remarking that it was only sex and sleep that reminded him he was mortal. Throughout his life, he displayed a single-mindedness that seemed to exclude all else. So his sudden apparent infatuation with Roxanne is likely to have had as much to do with cementing his rule over the Persian satrapies (such as Bactria and Sogdiana, both of which had proved so rebellious already) as passion for Roxanne herself. In this respect, Alexander was not Philip.

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"As he split his forces into two, one was led by Hephaestion and the other by himself. Hephaestion was to proceed through the Khyber Pass (from modern Afghanistan to India) while Alexander took a highland road to the north to suppress the various tribes in the far north of India. He sent messages ahead of his armies declaring his intentions and calling for the allegiance of the kings of India. Some met with him in the Kabul Valley before he set off, to give their oaths of allegiance.

"In the winter of 327-326 BCE, Alexander made the crossing into India. He suppressed the highland tribes with brutal efficiency, reducing cities to rubble where resistance was at its most determined. With the easier road to travel, Hephaestion reached the Indus River in northern India first and constructed a pontoon bridge for Alexander to cross. This brought the Macedonians into the kingdom of Taxila where they were met by King Omphis who pledged himself to Alexander’s rule.

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"The kingdom of Paurava was not equally cooperative. King Porus of Paurava was not prepared to surrender without a fight despite the overwhelming numbers of the Macedonian army, which Alexander had added to with twenty thousand local recruits before crossing into India. After spending the last ten years in constant warfare and conquest, Alexander’s army was also battle hardened. Alexander arrived at the Hydaspes River, with Porus’ army lined up on the other side. The encounter was not a difficult one for Alexander. Using the cover of a wooded island, he moved his men over the river on the pontoon bridge. Thus, he was able to encircle and crush Porus’ army.

"Porus, who fought atop his war elephant, impressed Alexander with his bravery. His life was spared, and he was even restored to his throne, having sworn fealty to Alexander first. This last was to become common practice for Alexander during his Indian campaigns. It became a source of division between him and his troops. The men, typically of ancient armies, fought for loot from their conquered foes. And Alexander was not only denying them this treasure—he was giving their defeated opponents their lands and titles back.

"The growing gulf between Alexander and his men was to be the final barrier to his ever expanding ambition. Empires, mountain ranges, deserts, and rivers had not been able to limit Alexander’s desire for new conquests. But the dissatisfaction of his army would. After the suppression of Paurava, it was Alexander's avowed intention to build a navy and travel south along the Indus to the ocean. While the ships were being constructed, he decided to take his army east across the mighty Ganges River.

"Alexander had heard rumors of a people in the far east of India (modern day Bangladesh) called the Gandaridae, who were ruled by a king called Xandrames. It was said that Xandrames possessed a massive army and had never lost his lands to war with any other ruler. This kind of challenge was exactly the sort that in his lifetime Alexander had never resisted. He could not accept that Tyre was impregnable, or that the Sogdian Rock was untouchable. For the same reason, he could not accept that Xandrames and the Gandaridae were undefeatable.

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"Alexander wished to cross the Ganges and add the Gandaridae to his conquests. By now, the monsoon season has started, making the Ganges a terrible prospect for the Macedonians. Attempts to build boats to cross the river were defeated. The army had waded through numerous cities and tribes to reach the Ganges, in heat and rain, and their morale was low. As he had done before, Alexander spoke to his men, using all of his rhetorical skill to engage their emotions. This time the army would not look at him. Eventually, a senior commander named Coenus came forward and told Alexander that his army was tired, missing their homes and families. The men wanted to go home. Coenus asked Alexander to return to Macedonia; to come back to India with a new generation of soldiers. While the army had remained silent for Alexander, they cheered on Coenus. It took Alexander three days to give in, but finally, he agreed to turn south and abandon his plans for further eastward conquest.

"Led by the admiral Nearchus and piloted by sailors from Phoenicia, Cyprus, Caria, and Egypt (all of which far-flung territories within Alexander’s realm), the Macedonians began the journey south along the Indus. They encountered rapids which caused damage to the ships and much terror amongst the men. While the ships were being repaired and subsequently commanded to explore the Persian Gulf by Nearchus, Alexander led the rest of the army through the lands of the Malli tribe, to return to Susa on foot.

"The Malli had a ferocious reputation as warriors and Alexander had throughout his life demonstrated a desire to test himself against those believed to be better. He led his men on foot southwards, through what is western India today, attacking and capturing Malli cities along the way. It was at the fourth Malli city that Alexander met with disaster. The populace had taken refuge in a strong citadel in the heart of the city. The Macedonians, seeing their king fighting on the walls with only a handful of men, rushed to Alexander’s aid. But their combined weight was too great for the siege ladders which collapsed. Meanwhile, Alexander leaped from the walls into the city and fought with only two other soldiers against the entire force of defenders.

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"The Macedonians eventually scaled the walls but not before Alexander suffered a punctured lung from an arrow. Seeing him on the ground in a pool of his own blood, the Macedonians were spurred into a frenzy. They would go on to slaughter everyone in the citadel. This bloody event demonstrates the complete reliance the Macedonians felt for their leader. Afterward, there was much wailing and sorrow amongst the army at what appeared to be a mortal wound. Alexander was forced to make an appearance before them, ascending to his horse without aid to show them he was still alive and well. It also demonstrates Alexander’s leadership style, he was always at the forefront of battle and, in this case, alone in order to set the example for his men."

Not civilised, were they, after all, the Greeks - or the Macedonians?

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September 17, 2022 - September 17, 2022.

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The Death of Alexander

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"Recovering from his wound, Alexander led his army out of India but chose the most difficult route possible. As with his desire to conquer the Gandaridae, or his need to conquer the whole of Asia (Philip had only ever spoken of liberating the Hellenic cities on the western coast of Asia Minor) Alexander seemed unable to take the easy path. There were more accessible routes available back into Persia, but Alexander chose the shortest and the one he was told was impassable. This was the Gedrosian desert, a particularly inhospitable region on the coast of the Indian Ocean and at the southern end of the Hindu Kush Mountains.

"The crossing was difficult, with the men having to be restrained from drinking their fill at the few watering holes because it was making them sick. But eventually, they reached the lands of Ecbatana and the easier journey to Susa. It was here that Alexander once again came into conflict with his troops after receiving fresh recruits from his Persian provinces (of whom the Macedonian veterans were disparaging) and beginning to decommission some of his Macedonian regiments. This act was not received well by the Macedonians who felt they were being rejected in favor of the Persians. Additionally, Alexander had taken Persian wives and encouraged his men with dowries to take Persian women of their own.

"Alexander showered his departing veterans with treasure, but they felt unhappy at being dismissed from his service. Alexander spoke to them, exercising his orator's skill once again and followed his speech with a period of isolation, refusing to speak to them. When he had attempted this at the Indus, it had failed to give him the results he desired; the army had forced him to turn away from his goal. But now the men were the ones who submitted. Eventually, only those who were unable to fight were dismissed, and the rest continued to follow Alexander.

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"The royal court moved north into Media during the summer of 324 BCE and there, during a banquet Hephaestion, one of Alexander’s closest friends fell ill. Alexander’s physician Glaucias tended to Hephaestion, but he died soon after. Alexander was angry enough at his passing that he had Glaucias crucified. It was the last of a string of events where Alexander’s pillars were being apparently knocked away. During the battle of the Hydaspes against Porus, Bucephalus had been killed by a spear. Moreover, Alexander’s loyal army had denied him the chance to continue his conquest to the very ends of the known world (and based on his previous behavior probably beyond). Now his best friend was dead as well.

"The following year at Susa, one of Alexander’s advisors, a Hindu guru named Calanus who had followed Alexander from India, grew sick from the long journey. He was seventy-three and told Alexander he would rather die than live disabled. He wished to be immolated—burnt to death—and though Alexander tried to persuade him otherwise, he was eventually forced to relent. Before immolating himself on the pyre, Calanus’ final words to Alexander were “We shall meet in Babylon.” He then died, by fire, and in silence, to the amazement of all who watched. None knew what his final words signified.

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"In a few months, it became clear. Alexander, like Hephaestion, fell ill following a banquet in June 323 BCE. He succumbed to his sickness between the evening of June 10 and June 11, 323 BCE. He gave the royal signet to Perdiccas to act as regent, but it was unclear who was to take over the reins of his empire. When asked who should succeed as High King of Asia, India, Greece, and Macedonia his only answer was “The strongest.”

"It is unclear exactly what caused Alexander’s death. Many factors could have caused ill health. His punctured lung, an extensive drinking habit (characteristic of Macedonians), difficult and exhausting journeys, and constant warfare would all have taken their toll on thirty-two-year-old Alexander. In the ancient world this would have been a respectable age to reach, and one in which the body would have been losing its vigor and resistance to illness, in much the same way as happens to people of fifty or sixty years in the modern era. He had been struck down with dysentery, and it has been speculated that he probably suffered from Malaria and Typhoid fever too. A perforated ulcer as a result of Typhoid may have been the cause of Hephaestion’s death as well.

The said great library was burned by Christians, which this book omits mentioning.

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"In the aftermath of the king’s death, the question remained of who would succeed. There was inevitable conflict, with the army dividing itself into rival factions. Eventually, the primary claimants divided the empire among themselves. Philip Arrhidaeus, Alexander’s half-brother, would rule in Macedonia with Perdiccas, the general who succeeded Alexander as supreme commander of the army, as his regent. Perdiccas would find himself opposed by other former generals and would be removed from his position and killed after attempting to invade Egypt, which had been ruled for Alexander by his friend and general Ptolemy since the Macedonians annexed Egypt.

"Following rebellions and civil war amongst Alexander’s former generals, and the Treaty of Triparadisus in 321 BCE, a new division of Alexander’s kingdom was made. In this new division, Seleucus, one of Alexander’s infantry generals would rule in Asia. His rule would be the foundation for the Seleucid Empire which for three hundred years ruled over Persia and Mesopotamia. Another of Alexander’s generals, Antipater, would govern Greece and wield effective control over Macedonia, as Philip Arrhidaeus was mentally retarded. Ptolemy would continue to rule Egypt. From his line would eventually come the legendary queen, Cleopatra.

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"Macedonia would pass from Alexander’s family line into the hands of Antipater’s family. Following Antipater’s death in 319 BCE, his son Cassander won control of Macedonia after a two-year war and would go on to rule for almost two decades. It was Cassander who finally ended Alexander’s line. Alexander’s Bactrian wife Roxanne had been living under the protection of his mother, Olympias, in Macedonia. She had born him a son, Alexander IV, the rightful king. While acting as regent to the infant king, Cassander had the boy poisoned in 310 BCE.

"Thus Alexander’s empire passed into history, becoming the possession of other men. However, as Alexander had dictated with his dying words, it was to the strongest of his friends that the spoils went—Seleceus, Ptolemy, Antipater, and Cassander took their share of the empire at the point of a sword, just as their former king had done."

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September 17, 2022 - September 17, 2022.

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Conclusion

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The authors do not discuss similarities and differences between Alexander and, say, Attila the Hun, or Chingiz Khan.

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September 17, 2022 - September 17, 2022.

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September 17, 2022 - September 17, 2022.

Purchased September 17, 2022.

ASIN:- B077GPFLCS

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https://www.goodreads.com/review/show/4992176462

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Reviews - Books I Read - DRJG

Sunday, September 18, 2022

Alexander the Great: A Life From Beginning to End (Military Biographies) Hourly History.

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